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FAQs
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How are cracked versions of software created and why are developers not able to prevent it?
Cracked versions of software are created with the use of debuggers. (A debugger is a special type of software that lets programmers deconstruct their software into its constituent parts for the purpose of finding bugs, and thus de-bugging. Additionally debuggers can be used for reverse-engineering, or to see what is inside the software, to learn its logic. The latter method is used mostly by malware researchers to study what malware (or computer viruses) do on-the-inside. But it can be also used by an attacker to "crack" (or bypass) legal software registration, or at times, to alter normal behavior of software, for instance by injecting a malicious code into it.)For the sake of this example, I will assume that the software that is being "cracked" was compiled into a native code, and is not a .NET or a JavaScript based application. (Otherwise it will be somewhat trivial to view its source code.) The compiled native code is a bit more tricky "beast" to study. (Native means that the code executes directly by the CPU, GPU, or other hardware.)So let's assume that the goal of an attacker is to bypass the registration logic in the software so that he or she doesn't have to pay for it. (Later for lolz, he or she may also post such "crack" on some shady online forum or on a torrent site so that others can "use" it too and give him or her their appreciation.)For simplicity let's assume that the original logic that was checking for the software registration was written in C++ and was something similar to the following code snippet:In this code sample "RegistrationName" and "RegistrationCode" are special strings of text that a legitimate software user will receive after paying for the license. (The name is usually that person's actual name or their email address, and the code is some string of unique/special characters that is tied to the name.)In the logic above, the function named "isRegistrationCodeGood()" will check if "RegistrationName" and "RegistrationCode" are accepted using some proprietary method. If they are, it will return true. Otherwise false. That outcode will dictate which branch (or scope) the execution will follow.So the logic above will either show that registration failed and quit:Or, if the registration code and name matched, it will save the registration details in persistent storage (such as the File System or System Registry) using the function named "rememberRegistrationParameters()" and then display the message thanking the user for registering:A "cracker" will obviously want to achieve the second result for any registration code that he or she enters. But they have a problem. They do not have the C++ source code, part of which I showed above. (I hope not!)So the only recourse for an attacker is to disassemble the binary code (that always ships with software in the form of .exe and .dll files on Windows, and mostly as Unix executables inside the .app packages on a Mac.) An attacker will then use a debugger to study the binary code and try to locate the registration logic that I singled out above.Next you can see the flowchart for a snippet of code that I showed in C++, presented via a low-level debugger. Or, as the code will be read in the binary form after compilation:(For readability I added comments on the right with the names of functions and variables. They will not be present in the code that an attacker could see.)(To understand what is shown above an attacker will have to have good knowledge of the Assembly language instructions for the native code.)I also need to point out that having a disassembly snippet like the one above is the final result for an attacker. The main difficulty for him or her is to locate it among millions and millions of other similar lines of code. And that is their main challenge. Not many people can do it and that is why software "cracking" is a special skill.So having found the code snippet above in the software binary file a "cracker" has two choices:1) Modify (or patch) the binary.2) Reverse-engineer the "isRegistrationCodeGood()" function and copy its logic to create what is known as a "KeyGen" or "Key Generator."Let's review both:The first choice is quite straightforward. Since an attacker got this far, he or she knows the Intel x64 Instruction Set quite well. So they simply change the conditional jump from "jnz short loc_7FF645671430" at the address 00007FF645671418 (circled in red in the screenshots) to unconditional jump, or "jmp short loc_7FF645671430". This will effectively remove any failed registration code entries and anything that the user types in will be accepted as a valid registration.Also note that this modification can be achieved by changing just one byte in the binary code from 0x75 to 0xEB:But this approach comes with a "price" of modifying the original binary file. For that an attacker needs to write his own "patcher" (or a small executable that will apply the modification that I described above.) The downside of this approach for an attacker is that patching an original executable file will break its digital signature, which may alert the end-user or the vendor. Additionally the "patcher" executable made by an attacker can be easily flagged and blocked by the end-user's antivirus software, or lead criminal investigators to the identity of the attacker.The second choice is a little bit more tricky. An attacker will have to study "isRegistrationCodeGood()" function and copy it into his own small program that will effectively duplicate the logic implemented in the original software and let him generate the registration code from any name, thus giving any unscrupulous user of that software an ability to register it without making a payment.Vendors of many major software products understand the potential impact of the second method and try to prevent it by requiring what is known as "authentication." This is basically a second step after registration, where the software submits registration name to the company's web server that returns a response back to the software of whether the code was legitimate or not. This is done by Microsoft when you purchase Windows (they call it "Activate Windows") and also by signNow, and many other companies. This second step may be done behind-the-scenes on the background while the software is running, and will usually lead to cancellation of prior registration if it was obtained illegally.So now you know how software is "cracked".Let me answer why it is not possible to prevent it. It all boils down to the fact that any software code needs to be read either by CPU (in case of a binary native code) or by an interpreter or a JIT compiler (in case of JavaScript or .NET code.) This means that if there's a way to read/interpret something, no matter how complex or convoluted it is, an attacker with enough knowledge and persistence will be able to read it as well, and thus break it.There is an argument though that cloud-based software is more secure, which is true, since its (binary) code remains on the server and end-users do not have direct access to it. And even though cloud-based software is definitely the future, it has some major drawbacks that will never allow it to fully replace your conventional software. To name just a few:Not everyone has an internet connection, or is willing to upload their data online. Additionally someone’s internet connection can be very expensive or too slow to make the software run very laggy.Then there’s a question of distributed computing. For instance, Blizzard Entertainment would never make “World of Warcraft” to fully run on their servers due to immense computational resources needed to render every single scene for every player they have. Thus it is in their best interest to let each individual user’s computer to do the rendering instead.As a software developer myself, I obviously don't like when people steal software licenses. But I have to accept it and live with it. The good news is that there are not that many people who are willing to go extra mile and search for a cracked version of software. The main problem for those who do, is that by downloading a patched executable, or an attacker's KeyGen or a Patcher, they are effectively "trusting" him or her not to put anything "nasty" into it that was not "advertised on the package" (stuff like trojans, malware, or keyloggers.) So the question for those people becomes -- is it worth the cost of the software license to potentially infect your system with a nasty virus?On the other side of the equation, some developers react very negatively to any attempts to steal their software licenses. (I was there too.) They try to implement all kinds of countermeasures -- anything from tricking reverse-engineers, to adding booby traps in the code that may do something nasty if the code detects that it is being debugged, to obfuscating or scrambling the code, to enforcing all kinds of convoluted DRM schemes, to blocking users from certain countries. I personally try to stay away from all of those measures. And here's why:A) Any kind of anti-reverse-engineering tactics could be bypassed by an attacker with enough persistence. So why bother and waste my time when I can invest that time into adding something useful to my software that will make it more productive for legitimate users?B) Some code packers could create false positives with antivirus software, which is obviously not good for marketing of that software. It also creates unnecessary complexity for the developer to debug the software.C) Adding booby traps in the code can also “misfire” on your legitimate users, which will really infuriate them and can even lead to lawsuits.D) Any DRM scheme will probably catch some 100 illegal users and greatly inconvenience 10,000 legitimate ones. So why do it to your good customers?E) Our statistics show that about 75% of all illegal licenses come from China, Russia, Brazil, to name the worst offenders. (I also understand that the reason may be much lower incomes that people have in those countries.) The main issue for us though was the fact that if we enforce our DRM or add some strong registration authentication, many people that wanted to bypass our registration would simply use a stolen credit card number. And we had no control over it. Our system will use it to send them a legitimate license only to have the payment bounce in weeks time. As a result we would lose the money that were paid for the license, plus the credit card company will impose an additional chargeback fee to our account, which may range from $0.25 to $20 per bad purchase on top of the license cost.F) As was pointed out in the comments, some companies may actually benefit from allowing pirated copies of their software. Microsoft for instance gets a lot of free publicity from people using their Windows OS, the same goes for signNow with their Photoshop. That is a good point that I agree with.So my philosophy is now this -- if someone wants to go extra mile and steal our software, go for it! They went this far to do it anyway, so they probably have a good reason. On the positive side there are so many other customers that appreciate the work that goes into creating software that greatly outnumber those that don’t.PS. Thank you for all your feedback! It makes me feel good that the knowledge I shared is useful to others.
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What other chords can I put in between the I-IV-V chords to make it sound better?
There are many. This is the theory behind some of them:A major scale has modes, right? Ok, each one of this modes represents a region. Major modes represent major regions; minor modes represent minor regions. For the moment we are not going to talk about the diminished mode, so for the moment the locrian is not going to represent a region close to tonic. So, for C major, we have the following regions:I Tonic - C majorii dorian - D minoriii mediant - E minorIV subdominant - F majorV Dominantvi submediantviib5 Ups! This region is not that close. I’ll tell you why later.Yes, I know, you should be thinking: “why mediant and not frigian?” Well, this are not modes, these are names of regions. We say dorian to differentiate it from the region of the supertonic (II major).So, the major regions are closely related to tonic. And these major regions have minor relative regions.ii is the relative minor of IViii is the relative minor of Vvi is the relative minor of I(vii is the relative minor of II, but we don’t have a D major chord that appears naturally, so this region should be not that close).So I was saying that the ii, the iii, the IV, the V and the vi are closely related to tonic. Well, we can import the alterations of this regions, we can use the key signature of them to build artificial chords. This artificial chords don’t belong to the tonality, that’s why they are artificial. But they are very close to the tonality. We can use them to ornament a progression.So, which are those alterations? Let’s see…From F major and D minor, we import Bb. But the ascending vension of the melodic scale of D minor has also B natural and C#. B natural is already in C, but C# is not. We can import it too.From G major (and E minor, it’s relative minor) we import F#. But the melodic scale of E minor presents C# and D# in the ascending version. We can import them too.So in C major we can import:Remember this formula: +4, -1, where “+” is the number of sharps to add and “-” is the numbers of flats. Let’s call it the hidden key signature. You will never write it on the score, it’s just a way to explain close relations to tonic. 4 sharps and one flat are close to a major tonality. This formula is relative to the real key signature. If we were in G major, four sharps and one flat would be:… And in Eb, we would have:So what’s the point with all this stuff? Four sharps and one flat are alterations that belong to regions that are close to tonic, and you can use them to build artificial chords: artificial dominants (they are also called secondary dominants), artificial semidiminished chords and even an artificial diminished chord.So, when you have a progression, you can ornament it by adding artificial chords in between. Artificial dominants are fifth degrees. So if we are in C major and you want to signNow the IV, you can put the V of the IV, which is C7. You can also use the vii° of the IV (Eb5, or Eb5 7).So in your progression, you can add:I - (I7) - IV - (II7) - VYou could also use half diminished chords, and it would be fine. Half diminished and diminished chords are seventh degrees of the target chord. The seventh degree must be a leading tone (half step below your target chord).There are many other chords that can be used, that come from not so close regions. I’m not going to explain them here, because it will take a long explanation. But augmented sixth chords can be used to replace the subdominant or to ornament the resolution to V.You could also add the I 6/4 in between the IV and the V. This is a diatonic ornament, no accidentals needed, and it was very common in the classical period.And of course you could also add suspensions, sevenths, anticipations, melodic ornaments, etc. If you know about voice leading, even a simple chord progression can sound really cool.All of this works fine for very conventional purposes but it also works for jazz. In jazz music you could use many other things, but in many cases they would be also related to this explanation.Edit: Now, the most important thing to understand is that harmony is not about formulas, but about technique. Many diatonic and non-diatonic chords can be used. Good or bad results depend on your purpose and the musical contexts.I hope this answer helps. Good luck.
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What are the variants of the Boeing 747?
Google and Wikipedia are your friends…I’m your friend too, so let me describe the different variants of the Boeing 747 for you on Quora:747–100First flight: February 9, 1969Number built: 168We start with the first generation 747. The prototype aircraft was named City of Everett, and it took off from the Boeing Field in Washington for its maiden flight.The inaugural commercial 747 flight took place on January 22, 1970. The plane serving the flight was Clipper Victor, the 11th Jumbo Jet built.On August 2, 1970, this plane was involved in the first ever hijacking of a 747. Pan Am Flight 299 was hijacked en-route to San Juan with 379 people aboard.The hijacker had a gun and explosives, and he demanded the captain to fly the plane to Cuba. The captain complied with his order.Having been notified of the hijacking, Cuban Prime Minister Fidel Castro visited Jose Marti Airport to witness the landing of a 747—a plane he had never seen before.Castro was intrigued by the unprecedented size of the Jumbo Jet. When the captain disembarked the plane with the terrorist, Castro bombarded the captain with questions about the jet’s capabilities, seemingly forgetting that he had just endured the sheer terror of a hijack.Unfortunately, Clipper Victor would later be involved in the worst aviation accident ever. On March 27, 1977, while operating as Pan Am Flight 1736, the plane was struck by KLM Flight 4805 on a runway, resulting in 583 fatalities.The second Boeing 747 ever built was turned into a noodle restaurant after retiring from service. However, the restaurant failed and the plane was scrapped.747–100SRFirst flight: August 31, 1973Number built: 7When Japanese airlines requested a high-capacity, domestic version of the 747, Boeing launched the 747–100 Short-Range. This variant has lower fuel capacity, and higher payload allowance. This is the first airliner to be configured to carry more than 500 passengers. Japan Airlines’ 747–100SR can carry up to 550 passengers.As the –100SR was designed to perform twice as many flight cycles as the –100, Boeing had to strengthen its airframe and landing gear.A –100SR was involved in the deadliest single-aircraft aviation accident, when Japan Airlines Flight 123 crashed in 1985, killing 520 people.▲ The aircraft involved in the tragedy.747–100BFirst flight: June 20, 1979Number built: 9This variant borrowed the stronger fuselage and landing gear design from the 747–100SR. Compared to the 747–100, it has a greater fuel capacity and longer range. Boeing also offered new engine options.In 1996, an Ilyushin Il-76TD struck a Boeing 747–100B flying at about 14,000 feet, resulting in the most fatal mid-air collision in history.747–100B SRFirst flight: November 3, 1978Number built: 20The difference between this model and the regular 747–100SR is an increased maximum take-off weight.747–100B SR SUDFirst flight: February 26, 1986Number built: 2This model has the same features as the 747–100B SR, but with a Stretched Upper Deck that is around 7 meters longer, providing a 10% increase in capacity and allowing for more seats. This new upper deck also came with a pair of full-size emergency exit doors for faster evacuation.▲ This image depicts an actual 747–100, not a –300.747–100SFThe 747–100 Special Freighter is a 747–100 converted to carry cargo. A main-deck side cargo door and cargo loading mechanisms were added. The main deck was strengthened to accommodate the increased weight of the payload.If you look closely at the image below, you’ll be able to see three exit doors that are sealed off, and the side cargo door behind the wing.747SPFirst flight: July 4, 1975Number built: 45The 747 Special Performance is truly unique and quirky. It is derived from the 747–100, and it’s about 14.7 meters shorter than a regular 747. It also has one less pair of exit doors on the main deck.It has a stubby fuselage, a huge vertical stabiliser, four turbofan engines and two passenger decks. It just looks ludicrous, and wonderful.The following was stated in Boeing’s 1984 edition of “747 Airplane Characteristics — Airport Planning”:[The 747SP] can fly higher, faster and farther than any other wide-body aircraft, and as a result serves well on long-distance air routes that do not require the size of the standard 747.The 747SP apparently had a top speed of approximately Mach 0.92 (630 mph/ 1013 kmh).One plane was involved in a near-disaster. In February 1985, China Airlines Flight 6 plummeted 30,000 feet in under 2 and a half minutes, before the pilots were able to regain control and level their jet out at 9,600 feet. The flight landed safely.▲ Damage sustained by the plane’s empennageThe plane was repaired, but its wings were permanently bent upwards by 5 cm.747–200BFirst flight: October 11, 1970Number built: 225The “second-generation” 747 entered service in February 1971, just a year after the original model. It has more powerful engines, higher maximum take-off weight and longer range.The 747-200B denotes the “basic” passenger version.▲ The KLM 747–200B that collided with Clipper Victor on the runway747–200FFirst flight: Early 1972Number built: 73This is the first freighter version of the 747 to be manufactured by Boeing.Boeing stated that this plane has “virtually” the same cargo space as the 747–100SF.747–200CFirst flight: Early 1973Number built: 13Equipped with a nose cargo door, the 747–200 Convertible is capable of being quickly converted from a passenger aircraft to a cargo aircraft, and vice versa. It can also carry a mix of cargo and passengers.▲ There are passenger windows on the nose cargo door.An El Al Boeing 747–200C carried a record-breaking 1,087 passengers on a single flight during Operation Solomon in 1991 (figure excludes babies board on the flight).747–200MFirst flight: Late 1974Number built: 78Also known as the –200B Combi, this plane is functionally similar to the –200C. It was built with a passenger cabin in the front half of the plane, and a cargo compartment in the back half.This model does not have a nose cargo door. Instead, a left-side main-deck cargo door was implemented near the rear of the aircraft. Unlike the –200C, this model cannot be converted into an all-cargo configuration.747 (SUD)While Boeing built the 747–100B SR SUD from scratch, they offered the Stretched Upper Deck as a retrofit to the 747–100B, 747–100SR, 747–200B and 747–200M variants.These images show the SUD modification process:All 747s that were upgraded with the extended upper deck were designated as “SUD” models. For example, the “747–200B SUD”.▲ Top: An original KLM 747–200B | Bottom: The same plane with the SUD upgrade747–300First flight: October 5, 1982Number built: 56The 747–300 is the third-generation passenger 747, and it came with the stretched upper deck as standard. To reiterate, the upper deck was stretched to be about 7 meters longer than older, non-retrofitted 747s, and it came with a pair of full-size exit doors.Boeing gave customers the option for updated engines, or the same engines from the 747–200 models.While older 747 variants had spiral staircases connecting the two passenger decks, the 747–300 featured a new staircase design which occupied less space in the cabin, providing room for more seats.▲ Left: Spiral staircase on a 747–200B | Right: Staircase on the 747–300747–300MFirst flight: Late 1982Number built: 21As with the 747–200M, the updated –300M can carry passengers and freight on the main deck. It is also referred to as the 747–300 Combi.747–300SRFirst flight: Late 1987Number built: 4This plane was once again introduced for Japanese airlines. It has a capacity of 584 passengers.747–300SFBoeing didn’t produce a freighter version of the 747–300, but they initiated a modification program in May 2000 to turn the passenger variants into cargo planes.747–400First flight: April 29, 1988Number built: 442The fourth-generation 747 introduced numerous structural and technological advancements, providing greater efficiency. It has more range, more fuel tanks, longer wings, and new wingtips that increase fuel efficiency by 4%.More importantly, this model came equipped with a glass cockpit consisting of multifunctional digital screens, which supersede many analog instruments. More computerised flight control systems were implemented, eliminating the need for a flight engineer and largely reducing the amount of knobs, dials and switches.Additionally, the model came with new powerplants choices and a refreshed passenger cabin. With 442 planes constructed, the 747–400 is the most popular 747 model.Unsurprisingly, the 1000th 747 produced is a 747–400.▲ This plane was delivered to Singapore Airlines in October 1993.747–400FFirst flight: Late 1993Number built: 126The freighter version of the 747–400.Since an extended upper deck is redundant and adds weight to the aircraft, every 747–400F retained the same upper deck dimensions as the 747–200F.747–400MFirst flight: Mid 1989Number built: 61Otherwise known as the 747–400 Combi, this aircraft can haul passengers and cargo on the main deck. Compared to older Combi aircraft, this model came with enhanced fire protection systems.The 747th 747 was a –400M. It was delivered to Lufthansa in September 1989.747–400DFirst flight: Early 1991Number built: 19For their high-capacity, short-range 747–400, Boeing decided to drop the “SR” label in favour of a new name, the 747–400 Domestic.Yet again, this variant was produced for the Japanese market. Because it’s tailored for short-haul flights, no winglets were installed on newly-manufactured 747–400D. Boeing later offered the winglets as a retrofit.This airplane has a maximum capacity of 660 passengers in a single-class configuration.747–400ERFirst flight: July 2002Number built: 6The 747–400 Extended Range was launched with an option of one or two additional fuel tanks in the forward cargo bay. Structural modifications allowed for a higher maximum takeoff weight.▲ Qantas is the sole operator of the –400ERThe Boeing Signature Interior, which debuted on the Boeing 777, was installed on every 747–400ER.The 747–400ER is expected to be retired by 2020.747-400ERFFirst flight: September 2002Number built: 40This model can fly 525 kilometres farther than the standard 747–400F. Like the -400ER, this plane has a more robust structure, enabling higher maximum takeoff weight allowance.747-400BCFFirst flight: October 5, 2005Every 747–400 Boeing Converted Freighter was once a passenger 747–400. Boeing appoints contractors like HAECO and SIAEC to perform the conversion work.Like the –400F, it has a side main-deck door situated behind the wings.747–8IFirst flight: March 20, 2011Number built: 47 as of September 2018Initially named the 747 Advanced, the 747–8 Intercontinental was launched in 2005.This model was developed with technologies and design derived from the 787. For the first time, Boeing lengthened the 747’s airframe. As a result, the 747–8I is the longest 747, and the longest commercial aircraft to date.It is powered by GEnX engines, the same ones found on the 787.The 747–8I features a redesigned wing and raked wingtips inspired by the 787. To reduce weight and improve efficiency, parts of the wings are constructed using carbon-fibre composites.It comes with updated flight deck systems and avionics, along with the Boeing Sky Interior. Its passenger windows are 16% larger than those on the 747–400, but unlike the 787, the windows don’t dim electrically.747–8FFirst flight: February 8, 2010Number built: 82 as of September 2018This freighter aircraft shares many attributes with the 747–8I, including its record fuselage length. However, the dimensions of the upper deck remain identical to original 747.The two 747–8 models are 5.6 meters longer than older 747 models, and 20.3 meters longer than the 747SP. They were stretched in different areas to suit their purposes:DreamlifterFirst flight: September 9, 2006Number converted: 4The 747–400 Large Cargo Freighter, better known as the Dreamlifter, is an oversized cargo transporter. This colossal aircraft has three times the cargo capacity of a –400F. It was exclusively designed and used by Boeing to carry parts of the 787 Dreamliner from suppliers around the world to the assembly plant.Like the –400BCF, this airplane model was converted from passenger 747–400s.▲ This 747–400 is one of the 4 aircraft to be modified into Dreamlifters.The first Dreamlifter rolled out of the hangar in August 2006, and it wasn’t particularly sightly. Then-president of Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Scott Carson, was reportedly heard apologising to the designer of the 747, Joe Sutter, by saying:[Sorry] for what we did to your plane.VC-25AFirst flight: May 16, 1987Number built: 2Commonly mistaken as the “Air Force One”, the VC-25A is a heavily modified version of the 747–200B. It’s only known as Air Force One when the POTUS is on board.In recent years, it has made many cameo appearances in tabloid newspapers.VC-25BFirst flight: July 8, 2016 (as a 747–8I)Number to be converted: 2The VC-25B will supplant the ageing VC-25A. It should be operational by 2024.To keep costs low, the US Air Force purchased two 747–8I airplanes that were originally built for a Russian airline which went bankrupt.▲ The two undelivered 747s destined to be VC-25Bs, stored in the Mojave desert747 SupertankerFirst flight: February 19, 2004Number converted: 3This is a Boeing 747 variant that was transformed into an aerial firefighting air tanker. It can carry up to 74,000 litres of fire retardant or water, and holds the record for the largest firefighting aircraft.Three Supertankers were built from a 747–100, –200C and –400BCF. However, only two entered service. This image below shows the 747–100 Supertanker:Presently, only the 747–400BCF Supertanker is in service.▲ This passenger plane was first converted into a freighter, then an air tanker.SOFIAFirst flight: April 26, 2007The Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy is a heavily retrofitted 747SP. It has a telescope installed near the rear of the airframe, and flies at up to 45,000 feet during its missions.This 747SP was formerly owned by Pan Am, and subsequently United.▲ SOFIA, before make-up▲ SOFIA, after make-upBoeing YAL-1First flight: July 18, 2002This plane was once a 747–400F, before becoming the YAL-1 Airborne Laser. It has an infrared chemical laser mounted on its nose, which was intended to destroy tactical ballistic missiles.▲ This plane gives Rudolph a run for its moneyThe plane successfully destroyed two test missiles. However, it was expensive and not operationally feasible. Hence, it was scrapped in 2014.Boeing E-4First flight: June 13, 1973Number built: 4The E-4 is an airborne strategic command and control post. It is derived from the 747–200B. When in operation, the E-4 is identified as a “National Airborne Operations Center”.This plane is capable of aerial refuelling, and was designed to remain airborne for a week during an emergency.▲ This 747 variant has a hump on top of its hump, which houses an antenna.There are two versions of the model, the E-4A and E-4B. The US Air Force initially had three E-4A planes. In 1979, Boeing delivered a new E-4, with upgraded equipment, which was designated as the E-4B. Thereafter, the E-4A jets were refurbished to become E-4B models.Shuttle Carrier AircraftFirst flight with a space shuttle: February 18, 1977Number converted: 2The Shuttle Carrier Aircraft was designed to transport space shuttles from landing sites back to the launch complex. In 1974, an American Airlines 747–100 was acquired by NASA and turned into the SCA.During the maiden flight with an orbiter, Enterprise, the SCA signNowed a speed of 462 km/h (287 mph), and an altitude of 16,000 feet.In 1988, a 747–100SR was obtained from Japan Airlines and converted into a second SCA.▲ The SCA piggybacking Space Shuttle Enterprise▲ Space Shuttle Endeavour riding on the SCAAfter the conclusion of the space shuttle program, the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft carried the shuttles from the Kennedy Space Centre to various museums.Thereafter, the SCA were sourced for spare parts that could be reused on SOFIA. Both planes are now preserved at museums.▲ The 747–100 SCA on display at Space Center HoustonJumbohostelFirst night: January 15, 2009This 747–200B was transformed into a hostel.After some additional work, the engine nacelles were turned into small rooms.Let’s move on to some 747 variants that were conceptualised but never built.747 trijetPeriod of study: Late 1960s — Early 1970sBoeing engineers crafted a concept for a 747 trijet to compete with the DC-10 and L-1011, but they realised it was too costly to develop. Boeing engineers figured that making a three-engine version of the 747 would require a redesign of the wings and the vertical stabiliser, along with other hassles that made the concept uneconomical.So, Boeing scrapped the 747 trijet.747–500X/ –600X/ –700XAnnounced: September 2, 1996Boeing proposed three versions of the 747 with longer fuselages as potential competitors to the hypothetical A3XX plane, which would later become the A380.The concept models were to feature an improved wing design taken from the Boeing 777, more landing gear wheels and a new interior design.▲ 747–400 (Top) compared to the 500X and 600XThe 747–600X and –700X were planned to receive longer and wider fuselages, while retaining the existing wing dimensions and landing gear structures. Furthermore, Boeing stated that the –700X would potentially have a capacity of 650 passengers in a typical three-class configuration.The –500X and –600X were offered for sale at the 1996 Farnborough Airshow, but they didn’t receive any orders. Thereafter, Boeing axed these three models.Oh and one last variant…747–8 PSPImagined: October 18, 2018The Boeing 747–8 Photoshopped Special Performance is the chubbiest 747 ever.Thanks for viewing.// //If you’re interested to know how the worst aviation accident in history happened, and learn about other mid-air disasters, check out Isaac Low's answer to Have planes crashed into each other?Image sources1st — General Aviation News2nd — Aviation Safety Network3rd — The Pan Am Historical Foundation4th — Vecamspot5th — SOBIFY6th — Wikimedia Commons7th — National Geographic8th — Wikimedia Commons9th — Dennis HKG/Flickr10th — Wikimedia Commons11th — Wikimedia Commons12th — Wikimedia Commons13th — Airliners[.]net14th — Cargo Facts15th — NACOE16th — Airline Reporter17th — Top: Airport-Data[.]com | Bottom: Bureau of Aircraft Accidents Archives18th — Airlines Inform19th — Left: Sam Chui | Right: Airliners[.]net20th — Airplane-Pictures[.]net21st — Wikimedia Commons22nd — Rohan Patel/Flickr23rd — Wikimedia Commons24th — Air Charter25th — (Thumbnail of YouTube video by akino33 Aviation Video Channel)26th — Wikimedia Commons27th — Airliners[.]net28th — Airplane-Pictures[.]net29th — Wikimedia Commons30th — Wikimedia Commons31st — Wired32nd — Modern Airliners33rd — Wikimedia Commons34th — australianaviation[.]com[.]au35th — JetPhotos36th — indicator[.]gr37th — unilad[.]co[.]uk38th — Defense One39th — Planespotters[.]net40th — The Gazette41st — Wikimedia Commons42nd — Wikimedia Commons43rd — SOFIA Science Centre44th — Wikimedia Commons45th — Wikimedia Commons46th — Wikimedia Commons47th — NASA48th — Wikimedia Commons49th — Amusing Planet50th — Hostelworld[.]com51st — robertcatanescu[.]wordpress[.]com52nd — Simple Flying53rd — Boeing Images54th — Wikimedia Commons (photo edited by me)Note: Due to Quora’s policy, I cannot add the image URL sources in my answer. 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Sadness again descended where a hero (Lt Col Niranjan) sacrificed his life for nation at Pathankot. Where are those voices now?
I belong to the armed forces fraternity, by virtue of which I get to hear directly from the men most affected by such incidents.I wouldn't want to add much myself, but I have a couple of forwarded messages which I believe really need to be shared. There are some pressing issues within the Armed Forces family, but since they have been raised to never question authority, they continue to suffer silently.Just give the following text some thought, they raise very valid questions and I wish the media and our general public paid attention to such details :"Touching message posted by a course mate of Lt.col Niranjan, who died while diffusing a bomb at Pathankot... R.I.P Lt Col Niranjan EK. My Coursemate, my Sutta Pal, Barrack-Type and Punishment-Type. Wish I could turn back the clock for you, Moron! I would have ensured that instead of CDSE you would have cleared your Civil Services Exam. Your daughter would have had a father to watch her grow up. Your wife would have had a husband to grow old with. And you would never had had to fight to get a decent pension (Not that you would have needed one - everyone knows the price of a Babu's signature). I wish that you had not been a warrior, a leader of men and a guardian of an ungrateful nation. I wish you had been a pen-pushing Babu who charged you just for doing his job. I wish that you had not been an Officer And A Gentleman earning a hardship allowance of Rs.32000 in Siachen. Instead you should have been a blood-sucking Babu earning Rs.72000 HARDSHIP ALLOWANCE for enjoying the salubrious climes of Shillong or Guwahati. Or I wish that you had been a Corporate Honcho, who earns thrice your salary for doing one-fourth of what you do. I wish that you had been an AAM AADMI for whom nothing matters beyond the next increment,the next mobile phone or the next vehicle that he is going to buy. I wish that you had been anything except what you chose to become - A Real Man, A Professional Soldier, A Leader Of Men, A True Son Of This Ungrateful Nation, Sworn to protect it at all cost. I Wish...I Wish... But You Are No Longer There.... So I can only pray that in your next life, you decide to do something worthwhile. Something... Anything.... Just Don't Repeat The Mistakes You Made In This One.. R.I.P Brother... We'll Meet In The Afterlife! "Another one which deserves some attention, it makes us question what the Police and other forces are doing while Army men die, they same army men who take up the job of the NDRF and others when Floods hit Kashmir or Tamil Nadu (to even rescuing kids stuck in borewells). :"Lt Col EK Niranjan of Engineers lost his life leaving a young wife & 18 months old daughter while combating terrorists in pathankot.he was seriously wounded in the action & later succumbed to the injurieswhy did he die ?for whom did he die ?the two big & unpleasant questionsit is the nexus of punjab police, politicians & drug syndicates which is ruling present punjaban suv of SP rank punjab police officer is highjacked while he himself was inside it & punjab police cannot locate the vehicle with blue beacon on it for next 24 hourswhen the SP himself reports to police within an hour of highjack & confirms it was indeed a militant activity, his report is brushed asidethe CM, Deputy CM & home minister are not aware till the militants actually attack the airforce basewhy?Because all three ie politicians, police & drug mafia are busy ferrying lethal drug consignments & counting money.An alert was issued after about 12 hours in the late evening of 01 january when the dead body of innova taxi driver was locatedCM, Deputy CM & home minister still remained silent.It is an eye opener for all of us in which direction the once prosperous state punjab is heading with the nexus of the trio.Lt Col E K Niranjan has made the supreme sacrifice while saving his brothers in airforce station at pathankot because his own countryman consisting of politicians, police & drug mafia of punjab have failed him, betrayed him & eventually murdered him.RIP brother, you could attain the selfless martyrdom for the selfish countrymen, we pray for you & your bereaved family. These terrorists came to the airbase using the SP pathankot's official car. The SP is alive. The driver is dead. All very convenient.That SP was accidentally moving around the place where the terrorists hijacked him with his car at mid night. He was thrown out of the car and the driver died. Very convincing.No one in the media is asking the right questions.What stops the media from saying what I said? Why not ask IG, gurdaspur? Why not ask DGP, Punjab? This question is not connected with the operations going on. In any case, army cannot answer this question. The question is, how did the SP escape? Why did he not fight the terrorists and die? Is his life more precious? What about his oath to the constitution of India? Why should the armed forces be the only guys to take their oath seriously and keep dying for the country? Are the IPS officers exempted from their own oath to protect India? These are serious questions which every citizen of India should be asking. Are armed forces supposed to die so that corrupt police officers can live?Genuine food for thought.. "PS: Above messages are as received via whatsapp. Similar concerns keep coming up in the armed forces often, and hence I decided to put then out in the open to the general public. I would not want to name those who sent these, since they still firmly respect their values as defence officers.
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Is HAL Tejas really a junk fighter aircraft?
Anonymous OP= Sadist w/o enough proof and evidence a.k.a TROLL.So here it is for Ya’all sadists fanboys.LOOK AT IT. UNDERSTAND IT. DIGEST IT. RESPECT IT!The answer is very long, but I assure you that it is to the point and will answer both questions in detail.The LCA-Tejas is the replacement for the soviet origin Mig-21 fighter aircrafts, which have been in air for around 70 years with various air-forces across the globe, Indian Air Force being a major customer with considerable numbers still in service. The LCA has hit the production lines and 123 are on order.But it is still a question if LCA is a worthy successor to the Mig-21? and if the country has gained anything from this or is it just another piece of junk?This answer shall dig into the above questions.Content:1.Role2.Aerodynamics3.Stealth4.Safety5.How it has helped the country?ROLE:Mig-21: It was primarily designed and inducted as an Interceptor, Later it was modified as CAS and a airsuperiority fighter.LCA: Point defense, multi-role fighter.Inference: The primary job of an interceptor is to gain speed and height quickly and to intercept incoming threats. They are not primarily designed to undertake CAS and Air-superiority fighter roles whereas LCA from the first day was supposed to be a multirole fighter. The design of Mig allows it to travel at very high speeds with degraded performance at low speed where as LCA has a balanced performance in all speed regimes.Little knowledge before going further:Aspect Ratio(AR): Ratio of total lenth of wing(wing span) to ChordWing loading(WL): It is ratio of gross weight to be carried by wing to area of wingLeading edge/Trailing edge :Anhedral/Dihedral:Chord: Line joining Leading edge to trailing edgeAOA: Angle between chord and Wind.Critical AOA: AOA for which lift is maximum or angle after which lift starts decreasing rapidly.Relation of AR with lift:Lift Vs AOA for various AR:Inference :Higher AR will have higher LiftMore the AR less will be the Critical AOA.Higher the AR, higher the induced dragAerodynamics of Delta Wings:Lift generated by delta wing has two components: Vortex lift+Potential Flow lift (read Lift on a flat plate)At lower angle of attack the lift is only the Potential flow component.(AOA=0*-5*)At higher angle of attacks Vortex are generated by the leading edge, which flow over wing and creates a low pressure region over wing and hence lift is generated.(AOA=5*-20*)At higher AOA the vortex starts getting disturbed and lift is decreased but can be controlled by certain measures.(AOA=20*-30*)Delta wing shows low lift at low A.O.A because of following reasons:More surface area for given amount of lift causes more viscous drag which decreases Lift/Drag ratio. More the ratio is better the lift.At low AOA the formation of vortex is not uniform or flow separation or due to vortex burst(I oversimplified way too much).Relation of WL with Maneuverability: The less the WL the better and faster will be the roll maneuver.AERODYNAMICS:Wing Type:Mig-21: Pure Cropped Delta with tail.LCA: Cropped Compound tailless delta.Inference: Mig had an extra control surface that added to the drag at high speed regime. Being pure cropped delta has it’s fair share of disadvantages as i mentioned above. Also due to the design the take off speed and distance is more for Mig-21 than Tejas.AR:Mig-21: 2.2LCA: ~1.75(Wing span^2 / wing area)Inference: Mig-21 focuses on more lift whereas LCA for less drag, no one wins in this department all matter of priorities. Trade-offs can’t be avoided.WL:Mig-21: 452LCA: 247Inference: LCA is a clear winner, this makes LCA more maneuverable in combat.Thrust to Weight Ratio:Mig-21: 0.7LCA: 1.07Inference: LCA wins, this gives LCA a better climb rate than Mig-21.Wing Position:Mig-21: -2* dihedralIts 2 deg annhedral sirLCA: Anhedral:Inference: Anhedral position of delta wings generates extra lift. LCA wins.AOA: This part is tricky.Mig-21:30*LCA:28*Inference: Despite using dihedral swept back cranks LCA has AOA 2* less than Mig-21, but at the same time it is good in terms of existing 4.5 gen aircrafts. The reason for the following can be the pure delta of Mig-21 which are best suited in for high AOA but poor lift at low AOA where as LCA tries to keep the lift enact even at low AOA and low speed, so the reduction of 2* AOA in LCA is a trade-off for a wider flight envelope.STEALTH:Inlet:Mig-21: Inlet cone with Inlet at front of the plane.LCA: Supersonic, Y-duct below and behind the wing.Inference: Mig doesnot gives stealth due to the protruding cone and compressor RCS just visible at the front whre as LCA has two advantage:Stealth by covering the Compressor RCS.Continious suppply of air at high AOA.Material Used:Mig-21: Mostly metal or alluminium alloyLCA: 44% is Carbon composite.Inference: LCA is more lighter, stronger and stealthier.Wing Blending: The Blending of wing with fuselage in LCA does two things:Lower down the RCS.Make fuselage a Lift generating object. This feature is not present in Mig-21.RAM: Extensive use of RAM(Radar Absorbing Materials) decrease the RCS both of body and the Cockpit through canopy.SAFETY:Needless to say from the day LCA was first flown it had never ever met with an accident, Mig-21 doesnot have a appreciable safety record which has earned it the name of “Flying Coffin”.IS LCA PROJECT A SCAM ON TAXPAYERS MONEY?Well, probably what’s your say on these?We paid $2B for INS vikramaditya when it was projected to be several millions.We are paying more than $3B for FGFA but the work share and ToT is still questionable.We are major share holder in Mig-29 and SU-30 MKI developement and still the supplier doesn't share spare parts of the same, result being more than 40% fighters being grounded at any given time and frequent crashes.We bought T-90S but it's FCS, Armour and Air condition, RCWS all run on that developed by DRDO for Arjun MBT, same stands for T-72 CIA. Reason Russia didn’t share the ToT as per agreement.Add up all these and the total financial figure can easily cross $10B. But still the media never shys away from calling this utterly over expensive, frequent maintainance and accident prone Russian equipments some sort of “Brahmastra” and the LCA which hasn’t met with an accident so far and an availability of 73% all the time a DUD. This is a bigger scam. Isn’t it?Coming to Tejas:1. It was meant to replace Mig-21 which was not a key fighter either.2.LCA remains the cheapest programme with just $1B on it’s R&D. Atleast one-fourteenth of the budget of nearest contemporary and still comparable.Can the OP produce any official reports to quantify the fact that an aircraft which is developed by an R&D organisation whose Total R&D budget is one-sixth of an E-retailing company’s R&D and having underpaid scientists as compared to it’s international peers is a SCAM.IS IT A CHEAP MIRAGE COPY?Perhaps NO. Why?Here is it :WING POSITION W.R.T FUSELAGE:Mirage: Flat i.e 0* w.r.t to horizontol axis.LCA: AnhedralInference: For Delta Wings Anhedral placement creates more lift, which further help to counter the lack of lift during slow speeds in tejas but thats not the case with Mirage, suffers lack of lift during slow speeds.Extra LIFT AND PERFORMANCE INCREMENT DEVICES(Canards/LERX/Chine etc):Mirage: Small strake on the intakes above wing.LCA: Crank (Marked in pink and dihedrally placed)Inference: Mirage doesnot have any Lift increment device, the strakes it uses it gives a littlehelp in maintaining airflow at high AOA but not very effective , unlike tejas whose dihedrally positioned forward swept crank helps it a lot to maintain lift at high angle of attack(AOA) by delaying flow separation above wings.BLENDING WING : Look at wing- fuselage for junction both :Mirage: The junction is clearly visible.LCA: There is blending of juction between wing-fuselage.Inference: Now this feature does two things-Makes the fuselage self lift creating object.Helps to reduce the RCS and add stealth to aircraft.Mirage is in disadvantage in this one.WING-LOADING : The lower the better. Lower wing loading is a key deciding factor about the maneuverability of aircraft. Lower wing-loading helps in better dogfight.Mirage:337 kg/m²LCA: 247 kg/m²Now comes the most complex of all but rather ignored topic the INTAKES. The topic is scientifically very critical in deciding the performance of aircraft.The position of inlet:Mirage: Beside the fuselage.LCA: Under and Behind wing.Inference: Putting the inlet sidewise, creates airflow moving over the surface of the fuselage develops a turbulent boundary layer, and ingesting this turbulent boundary layer into the engines may causes problems in the compressors if not it adds to drag. Also at high AOA this position of inlets does not ensure a good performance but in case of tejas the position of inlet behind wind ensures a considerable of amount of air supply to engine at high AOA which is not in case of Mirage.Type of Intake:Further the intakes of Mirage are old gen intake comprising inlet cone but which doesnot helps to guard the compressor RCS, but Tejas uses Y-Duct intake that curtails the compressor RCS and gives a big RCS reduction to tejas and adds to tejas’s stealth which is not the case with Mirage.Above: Inlet cone of Mirage; Below: Y-duct inlet design.Conclusion: Where Mirage was primarily developed to replace Mirage III it was supposed to be a interceptor and good ground attack capability which are the strong points of mirage but lacks little bit in Air to Air and Stealth capability whereas the LCA was always supposed to be point defense fighter to replace Mig-21 , hence it was supposed to have a well balance of ground attack, Air to Air combat and Stealth. Though LCA lacks in terms of range but thats a trade off between aerodynamics, stealth and attack capability just like the Mirage which does just the reverse. It’s all matter of priorities. The following points proves that LCA is not copy of Mirage-2000 either!A SHEAR WASTE OF TAXPAYERS MONEY?Hell No, I don’t believe so!TEJAS IS NOT A FIFITH GENERATION AIRCRAFT. IT WAS NOT SUPPOSED TO BE ONE. IT IS REPLACEMENT FOR MIG-21. IT DOES JOB QUITE WELL. LETS KEEP IT THAT WAY. TELLING TEJAS IS FIFTH GENRATION AIRCRAFT WHEN IT IS NOT IS UNDERMINING THE AIRCRAFT DELIBERATELY. WE HAVE FGFA AND AMCA PROGRAMMES TO TAKE CARE OF FIFTH GENERATION AIRCRAFT NEEDS.Rest of the answer i am reposting one of my earlier ones:IAF is at least of its air squadron power ever, this answer shall also look into this point if this situation was sudden or it was predictable.HAL tejas a failure or Success?Well its time to find out…Content:History of developement: HAL Marut, MCA(Most of us won’t have even heard of it), LCA-tejasTechnologies developed: Fly-by wire, engine, radar, aerodynamics, avionicscontribution to the industry/ country .comparison of budgets with other fighter jets?Let’s start with:HISTORY:HAL MARUT:The first supersonic fighter jets in Asia.Served efficiently from 1960–1991 without any severe problems.Also IAF was enjoying aerial supremacy in the region with the newly developed and bought 1200 Mig-21, during this time the PLAAF was not as strong as IAF. But Chinese realised “SOMETHING” that we (excluding navy) didn’t and are still denying from realising it.It was first fighter jet developed, designed and manufactured in India.It got some engine problems, GTRE did developed engine for it, it worked with complete efficiency but was incompatible with aircraft. Had there been foresightedness in airforce, governement and beuraucracy a little more funds would have given us a new engine for Marut. But Marut died a slow death given by beuraucracy, poor R&D funding(which still is poor), and lack of foresightedness.HAL MCA(Medium Combat Aircraft): Say Hello to this Guy!!It was the twin engined, vertical stabilizer less, 360 Thrust vectoring nozzle aircraft a.k.a twin engined MCA(big brother of MCA)It was proposed in early 2000s.But We did the same mistake again, IAF showed little interest in the program and the plan was shelved back in 2000s and the IAF insisted on the LCA and insisted for 126 MCA from foreign and hence started the saga of 126 MMRCA with tender being issued in 2001. The deal was signed for just 36 in 2016. We wasted 16 years again, had there been foresightedness and less corruption in the system , with proper absorption of public and private industry, this thing would have been already into the sky.But, it never saw the daylight and remained a proposal.HAL TEJAS:The so called 1980 is just a media propaganda, it was the year IAF mentioned this matter, 1984 ADA was formed and 1990 finally funds were released so actual commencement was 1990 and not alleged 1980.At last there was some ray of hope though tarnished by 1999 nuclear test embargos, Tejas took to the sky in 2001.LCA was named tejas by then PM.Shri Atal Bihari Bajpayee. The programme went well till 2004, it slowed down after 2004 due to slack nature of then government, corruption throughout the reign rocked the entire country during this period, Let alone tejas it was just a small Fighter jet under developement.2014 BJP governement came back again with absolute majority and Defense Minister being Manohar parrikar, clearly stating that Tejas is his dream project.Tejas programme in this two year period i.e 2014–16 saw a faster speed of developement with 123 strong tejas being ordered by DAC and in early 2017 it’s FOC started with successfull firing of Derby guided missile in guided missile mode.TECHNOLOGIES DEVELOPED:Airframe and Aerodynamics(including stealth):The exact RCS of tejas is unknown. But it is said that it is “1/3 of mirage”, considerably low as compared to other 4th generation aircrafts because ofHigh usage of carbon composites.Being small in size adds to the lowering the RCS.Y-shape inlets that reduces the heat signature of the engine..Use of RAM(Radar Absorbent material) paints.Addition of AESA radar in mk1a and mk2 will ensure that tejas locks on to the target before target sees it which adds to the LO feature.Radar waves normally enter the cockpit reflects of objects & possibly return to the radar and even the HMD of pilot itself contributes to RCS. To avoid this Tejas canopy is coated with a thin film transparent conductor of Indium Tin Oxide. The coating is thin enough that it has no adverse effect on pilot vision and can reflect the radar waves away from the radar antenna.quadraplex digital fly-by-wire control system.ENGINE:A little bit history about the kaveri engine:The GTRE GTX-35VS Kaveri is a turbofan project developed by the (GTRE), a lab under the DRDOT the Kaveri was originally intended to power production models of the Tejas LCA fighter.This was approx 202 mn $ project.Later on the project was divided into two category: K9 and K 10K9: Will be completely indigenous with only foreign consultation and certification.K10: Will be a joint venture with a foreign partner.Problems that occured:Kaveri engine in its present form uses directionally solidified blade technology which is rather an old tech and it couldn’t tolerate the high temperature in its combustion chamber called “Kabini”. The solution was “single crystal blades”The thrust generated was nearly 65 to 70% of what was needed.Performance decay at high altitude.A peculiar noise when in after burning mode..Here comes the MMRCA deal which many think was a bad decision by the current leadership as it just bought 36 rafales. But if we look closely to the offset, it was boon to us as under the offset:Snecma which manufacture the Rafales M-88 core agreed to help and signNow the engine in 18 months.DRDO has been given a virtual carte blanche to channelise offsets from the Indian Rafale deal to resurrect the Kaveri.Snecma, a partner in the Rafale programme, builds the Rafale’s twin M88 turbofan engines. Under the terms of the partnership , Snecma is working to modify, signNow and integrate the Kaveri on a Light Combat Aircraft airframe before 2020.A later phase in the partnership will involve modifications on the Kaveri for a twin configuration on India’s AMCA fifth generation fighter concept and an altered non-reheat version for the Ghatak UCAV.According to DRDO chief the kaveri engine will be ready by next aero india.Another good new is that altitude test and flying test bed trials have been completed. Official statement of MoD in Parliament” In a written reply to the Lok Sabha in December 2016, Minister of State for Defence Subhash Bhamre had called the effort of the GTRE in developing the engine as “an attempt to mastering one of the most complex technologies”. The minister said the altitude test and flying test bed trials for the engine had been completed and other developmental problems were being addressed to make the engine flight-worthy through in-house efforts as well with assistance from abroad”.The engine will be first used on Tejas PV-1.Other uses will beGhatak UCAV(Dry variant or w/o afterburner)AMCATejas Mk2Also, Rolls royce has collaborated with DRDO on developing the K10 engine. This engine’s first prototype is to be expected in 12 month. The news was broken out in Aero-india 2017 in february.http://www.thehindu.com/news/nat...UK’s Rolls Royce, India’s DRDO working together on engine for fighter jetsWIND TUNNEL FACILITIES:Perhaps you have made this 74 Wind tunnel facilities across the country and other aerospace testing centres.LCA was the principle project that compelled India to develope all this centres of excellence indigenously after being kicked out from Buffalo, USA after ’99 nuclear test.AVIONICS:Indigenous HUD.EW suite for Tejas is under developement for LCA but since it is small it has to be compact other than that Tusker EW suite is the bigger derivative of the suite Mayavi EW for LCA and is used for Mig-29, jaguar and Su-30. Samyukta is also another EW suite that has used the experience from past developement of Mayavi and tusker EW.Early version of tejas (PVs) had analog display now they fly on Digital display designed by DARE(DRDO).Also DARE has developed the litening targetting pod for effective targetting of air version of brahmos.It’s HMD is ELBIT designed, but its friend and foe detection is designed by DRDO.UTTAM AESA (Further updates:Soikot Banerjee (सोइकोत बैनर्जी)'s answer to Is India developing/working on AESA radars?)radar has given rise to many other forms of AESA radar such as that used on swordfish radar, AEW&C, recently successfully launched QRSAM.CONTRIBUTION TO COUNTRY/INDUSTRY:Private sector giants especially TATA SED and L&T have gained a lot of experience in electronics and manufacturing respectively.It has created a chain of MSMEs.Almost entire fuselage which includes wings, center of fuselage is made by private companies and HAL is only a integrator.AMOUNT OF RESOURCE:Tejas is the most economical 4.5 gen aircraft programme ever with $1 bn spent on programme, whereas Gripen is 14 bn$ programme and F-16 even more.Tejas has never ever faced an accident whereas its competitor Grippen has faced Two accidents.Given the amount of experience by spending the least amount of money compared to any fighter jet programme as shown by above facts and two failed attempts to develope or continue to develope a fighter jets, TEJAS LCA IS A SUCCESS.The “SOMETHING” that i mentioned earlier is the thing that complete indigenisation is the only way you can survive for long and you can see how strong and thriving the chinese aerospace industry is now(you can abuse me as traitor, porkistani and whatever you may like).But it’s time to accept that only R&D can give us what we call as self reliance and not so called ToT that we keep asking from other nations.No nation will give critical technologies that have made them pioneers of their respective field. By giving critical tech to another company, no parent company in sane mind would create their own competitor. But w/o critical tech we can’t modify the weapon platforms according to needs as all IPR are reserved with the parent company, forget about creating a new one.Hence LCA TEJAS is a success and the present squadron crisis was predictable and also preventable had there been foresightedness in IAF, beuraucracy to develope complete R&D infrastructure by consuming potential of both private and public sector also academic institutions to the fullest.Hope this is sufficient for you, or else I can serve more but that will be on further requests. LOLz.Footnotes:1.Soikot Banerjee (सोइकोत बैनर्जी)'s answer to After the failure of Kaveri GTX jet engine is India still developing an indigenous jet engine?2.https://www.quora.com/Why-cant-India-develop-its-own-AESA-radar/answer/Soikot-Banerjee?srid=RKYr3.Soikot Banerjee (सोइकोत बैनर्जी)'s answer to Why can't India develop its own AESA radar?4.https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-RCS-of-Tejas/answer/Soikot-Banerjee?srid=RKYrPic credits: Google and Respective ownerPic credits: GooglePic credits:respective owners and google.Data: Wikipedia
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Many modern digital producers rave about the SSL sound (the Solid State Logic sound) and recommend it for mixing and mastering d
Historical Context of the SSL.A signNow amount of music that has enriched our lives has passed through an SSL console of one type or another. The seriously big boys of mixing, Bob Clearmountain, Chris Lord-Alge, Tom Lord-Alge, Andy Wallace, Mark "Spike" Stent, Will Schillinger and Alan Moulder, engineers who have shaped the way we hear and appreciate modern music, often use SSL technology, specifically the 4000 series.The discographies of each mixer read as a who’s who of modern music. Andy Wallace alone has mixed some of the most seminal rock and heavy metal music in history - ...
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How or why did the Portuguese language diverge so much phonetically from Galician and Spanish?
Portuguese, Galician and Castilian sound different, but that doesn’t mean that the only one diverging was Portuguese. In fact, all three diverged from the earlier Iberian dialect continuum that was their ancestor.Portuguese has nasal vowels that came about when nasal consonants between or after vowels weakened (and nasalised the preceding vowel in most cases) and then disappeared over time; in the same way, the ‘l’ sound between vowels dropped out, and became “darker” (pronounced with greater activity in the back of the mouth) at the ends of syllables, eventually changing into a ‘w’ sound in many dialects, especially in Brazil.But Portuguese has kept certain kinds of consonants that were present in the language in the Middle Ages but were lost in other Ibero-Romance dialects. These include the ‘z’ sound written with the letter ‘z’ and ‘s’ between vowels, what was originally a ‘ts’ sound written in Portuguese and older Spanish spelling as ‘ç’ or as ‘c’ before ‘e and ‘o’, and the ‘zh’ sound written with the letter ‘j’ and ‘g’ before ‘e’ or ‘i’.In Portuguese and southern Castilian Spanish dialects (Andalusian ones in particular), the ‘ts’ changed to a ‘s’ sound at the end of the Middle Ages. In Castilian, the ‘ç’ spelling disappeared around the 17th century and was replaced by ‘z’, but unlike in Portugal and the south, the ‘ts’ sound developed (probably via a ‘t-th’ sound) into the ‘th’ sound typical of northern Spain. Again around the end of the Middle Ages, in the non-Portuguese dialects, the ‘z’ and ‘zh’ sounds lost their voicing (the accompanying hum that you can feel if you touch your voice box when you say those sounds) and turned into ‘s’ and ‘sh’ sounds. Just like the already existing ‘sh’ sound that was spelled with ‘x’, this came to be spelled with ‘x’ in Galician, but Castilian eventually decided instead to use ‘j’ and ‘g’ before ‘e’ and ‘i’ (from the spellings for the original ‘j’ sound). When the Spanish encountered the inland Meshika people at the western end of the Caribbean in the 1500s, they spelled their name ‘Mexica’ (before the eventual spelling reform); a famous Spanish fictional character found his name adapted into French spelling as “Don Quichotte” in order to keep the ‘sh’ sound (spelled ‘ch’ in French) as it was pronounced at the time, and the southwestern town now called Jérez de la Frontera produced and still produces a fortified wine known in French as Xérès (from the earlier Spanish spelling ‘Xerez’) and in English Sherry, based on the pronunciation of that first consonant five centuries ago.Galician, as well as Asturo-Leonese to its east, kept that ‘sh’ sound along with the ‘x’ spelling, but over a period that ended not long after 1600, the ‘sh’ sound came to be pronounced as ‘kh’ or ‘h’ (depending on the Castilian dialect), giving the typical “jota” sound we know in Spanish today. I myself have seen written traces of this happening in archival documents from the Philippines, where names like Jesús, Juan and José were spelled in signatures from the early years of the 1600s with the equivalent in the indigenous script of ‘si su’, ‘su wa’ and ‘su si’ and later on in the 1600s with the equivalents of ‘hi su’, ‘hu wa’ and ‘hu si’. There was at least one person (these were signatures on land deeds) whose name was spelled both ways at different periods!Almost as an afterthought, I should add that syllable-final ‘s’ came to be pronounced as ‘sh’ in some Portuguese dialects, while in southern Spanish dialects it came to be pronounced as ‘h’ or even dropped (something typical in the Americas of “lowland” dialects). It’s an interesting further footnote to these consonant changes that ‘y’ came to be pronounced as ‘dzh’ or ‘zh’ in Andalusian and “lowland” dialects, and in Rioplateño dialect of Argentina, this ‘zh’ from earlier ‘y’ has repeated the journey of the earlier ‘zh’ sound and is now widely pronounced as ‘sh’ in the area around Buenos Aires (if not even further).I won’t have as much to say about the vowels as I’m not personally familiar with why Castilian has a simpler five vowel ‘a e i o u’ vowel system where Portuguese (like the Gallo-Romance language Catalan on the other side of the Peninsula) has an (underlyingly) seven vowel ‘a ê é i ô ó u’ system (where the vowels spelled ‘ê’ and ‘ô’ are more “closed” mid-vowels with the tongue slightly higher in the mouth as in Spanish ‘e’ and ‘o’, contrasting with the more “open” ones spelled ‘é’ and ‘ó’ that sound like the English vowels in ‘fell’ and ‘coffee’. What I can say is that at some point before Portuguese spread beyond its Atlantic coast, vowels in unaccented syllables “weakened”, i.e. relaxed their tongue position so that it raised somewhat in the mouth, so that the low, open ‘a’ vowel became a neutral “schwa” vowel much like the first vowel in English ‘about’, while the two ‘e’ vowels became either that schwa or an ‘i’ (often between ‘i’ and schwa in Portugal) and the ‘o’ vowels became ‘u’. However, in accented syllables, they all kept their original values.So overall, while Portuguese diverged from the more central and northerly Ibero-Romance varieties in some ways, in other ways, it was those other varieties that diverged from Portuguese, especially when it comes to consonants.
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What are the main areas that one should learn during CA articleship?
I did my articleship from Khimji Kunverji and Co., one of the top firms in Mumbai; and it was an awesome experience. Let me shed some light on my learnings -Learn to say NO - Random seniors come and give you random work. Learn to say No. Learn to say you are busy. You are not a dustbin.Learn to say YES - You need to have a good rapport with your immediate seniors and your boss. I have filled my boss’s daughter’s BFM admission form because she needed some help. Sometimes, you have to keep your ego aside and look at the larger picture.Whether audit or tax is the one for you - You tend to spend 3 years in articleship, doing either audit or tax. It is good enough time to gauge whether you want to do this for your entire life or not. For me the answer was NO, and I switched to Finance. No point wasting time once you qualify.Domain Knowledge - In your first job interviews after becoming a CA, a lot of stress will be on what you did during these 3 years. You should be upto date with that. Get your basics right.Out time is a myth – As per my firm HR Manual, the official work time was roughly 10-30 to 6–30. Strangely, you used to be penalized for coming late, but no credit for going late. It’s the norm. Get used to it.Make Mistakes - Ask stupid questions. Make mistakes. Experiment. Because you have the license to. You are a fresher. As a CA, people expect more.Do not neglect your Social Life - Its important. Your boss will not come at 12 to your place with a cake in his hand, wishing you a happy birthday.I remember getting into a train during my 1st year articleship. I somehow started chatting with a guy standing near me. He was a CA. I told him I just cleared IPCC and started with articleship. He started laughing and said “Welcome to Hell”.With all the office and study pressure, you might feel life sucks during articleship, but it will be a great experience. You will create memories of a lifetime. Cherish it :)
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What are the best features of Microsoft Office 365?
Here’s a breakdown of some awesome Features Office 3651. Work Smarter, EverywhereAfter buying Office 365, you also gain access to its accompanying mobile apps and browser apps. This allows you to access their cloud service from any up to date web browser on your desktop or mobile device. Even better yet, you don’t have to install Office software on your computer to do this.The mobile app allows you to access all of your Office 365 subscriptions and Office products right from your smartphone or tablet; this includes Word, Excel, Powerpoint, Onenote, and more. Cut the cord and stop working on your PC only — download the Microsoft Office 365 mobile app to stay productive, even while on the go.2. Enjoy 50 GB of StorageEach Office 365 user receives a whopping 50 GB of storage with Exchange Online; this can be used to save emails, calendar events, task lists, meeting notes, contact information, and email attachments.You can save some more space in your mailbox by utilizing the OneDrive cloud storage feature to share attachments.Your OneDrive storage is also synced to your device, enabling you to work offline on files. As soon as you reconnect to the web, the newest versions of your documents will be automatically uploaded to your cloud storage. The new versions of your documents will also be sent to any other connected device, including your phone or tablet — nifty!3. Edit Documents with Real-Time Co-AuthoringCollaborate online and see changes your team makes to shared documents within your Office apps as they happen with the real-time co-authoring feature in Word. Save your file to OneDrive cloud storage or SharePoint so your team can access the document and make any necessary edits or updates. You can also share it directly from Word by utilizing a handily integrated sidebar. As the publisher and access-giver, you can edit accessibility settings at any time.With the improved version control that was rolled out with Office 2016 co-authoring, you can see which changes to the document were made by which contributor and when the update was made. You can also easily revert back to a previous version of the file whenever you need to.4. Connect with Co-WorkersYou may not have known this, but Office apps include a Skype in-app integration. You can use this feature to instant message your teammates, share your screen during meetings and have audio or visual conversations — without even exiting the Office apps you’re working in. You can continue Skype conversations even after you close your office apps via your desktop or mobile version of Skype. The best part? Your team will receive unlimited Skype minutes.Source: Microsoft5. Send Links, Not FilesIt’s time to move away from email attachments. It’s never been easier to share documents for co-authoring!Simply upload your file to Office 365’s cloud storage. Then, write your email via Outlook or the Outlook web app. Rather than attaching your document to the email, you can insert a link to the file on your cloud. Outlook will automatically allow email recipients to edit the document you wish to share. You can always change permissions on any document at your convenience.6. Convert OneNote Items into Outlook Calendar EventsEasily configure OneNote items to tasks within your Outlook calendar. You can also assign tasks to colleagues, complete with follow-up reminders and concise due dates. You can also transfer meeting notes taken in OneNote via email to your teammates, and add important details (date, location, and attendees) to their respective meeting.7. Use Your Mouse as a Laser Pointer during PowerPoint PresentationsWith only a simple keyboard shortcut (Ctrl + P), your mouse can be used as a laser pointer during your PowerPoint presentations. You can also use the “presenter mode” commands while using this feature.The laser pointer tool has been a nifty trick within older versions of the office apps for years; however, it was only recently integrated for touch-screen devices. All you have to do is hold down on your device’s screen, and the laser pointer will appear.8. Create a Power Map Using ExcelTurn data into a 3-D interactive map with Power Map, one of the many Power BI-enhanced data visualization features that Excel has to offer. It comes with three different filters: List, Range, or Advanced. The Power Map will help you not only convey your data more effectively, but also support your claims by creating a tangible story from the numbers.
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