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FAQs
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Did Raghuram Rajan know about the demonetization scheme of Narendra Modi?
The following persons only were aware of the plan.1. PM Narendra Modi2. Finance Minister Arun Jaitley3. RBI Ex-Governor Raghuram Rajan4. RBI Governor Urijit Patel5. Secretary of Economic Affairs Shaktikanta Das6. Secretary of Investments & Currency Dr. Saurabh Garg7. and a few others in finance ministry.Because the plan was finalized six months back and Mr. Rajan left office on 4th September 2016 only. So such a decision can’t be carried out without the approval of RBI Governor.The detailed execution went something like this.Before Six Months- Plan was finalized and execution for the D-Day started.June - Banks were directed to dispense more 100 rupee note by RBI.Before three Months- Design of new 500 & 2000 rupee note was finalized and went for printing at Mysuru Mint press.PS: Only the design of the plate was finalized. The printing didn't start that time as Mr. Rajan denied continuing for next term and new governor was declared.The printing facility at Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran Private Ltd. (BRBNMPL) in Mysuru under Reserve Bank of India was set up with the De La Rue Giori, now KBA Giori, Switzerland.20 August - Mr. Urjit Patel was declared as new governor.4 September - Mr. Urjit Patel joined office as new governor and gave a green signal to Modi for demonetization after a thorough discussion. He sent his signature sample in English and Hindi to be added to newly designed 2000 currency plate.5–6 September - Signature was added to the plate and new dye was made. Printing of currency started.27 October - The central bank put out a warning about fake currencies on its website. It asked banks to put entire banking areas under CCTV surveillance and ensure that cash receipts in the denominations of Rs 100 and above are not put into re-circulation without the notes being machine-processed for authenticity.The CCTV surveillance is now being used to monitor and record all the money exchanges that are taking place at banks.2 November - Banks were directed again to dispense more Rs 100 notes through ATMs within the next fortnight.7 November - The Heads of currency management divisions in all banks received a confidential communication from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to be present at the headquarters.8 November Morning- They were given charge of a double-locked currency chest, which they were told contained currency notes of the new denomination: Rs.2,000.Though it also had the RS 500 new notes, but it wasn’t disclosed.8 November 7 PM- All MDs of banks were called for a meeting at RBI and were kept waited till 8PM. At PMO, all cabinet ministers were called for a meeting, but no one was allowed to carry mobile.Privacy was of top most priority. Even leak of the news by a few minutes could have caused disaster.8 November 8 PM- Disclosure of demonetization by PM on National TV.The entire nation came to know about it at the exact same time.A master stroke that left the nation spellbound !But the question to ponder is - Did Mr. Rajan leave the office, because he wasn’t in full support of the plan ?Here is what he had to say on demonetization in 2014: Ref“I am not quite sure if what you meant is demonetise the old notes and introduce new notes instead. In the past demonetization has been thought off as a way of getting black money out of circulation. Because people then have to come and say "how do I have this ten crores in cash sitting in my safe" and they have to explain where they got the money from. It is often cited as a solution. Unfortunately, my sense is the clever find ways around it.They find ways to divide up their hoard in to many smaller pieces. You do find that people who haven't thought of a way to convert black to white, throw it into the Hundi in some temples. I think there are ways around demonetization. It is not that easy to flush out the black money. Of course, a fair amount may be in the form of gold, therefore even harder to catch. I would focus more on the incentives to generate and retain black money. A lot of the incentives are on taxes.My sense is the current tax rate in this country is for the most part reasonable. We have a reasonable tax regime, for example, the maximum tax rate on high-incomes is 33%, in the US it is already 39% plus State taxes, etc., it takes it to near 50. We are actually lower than many industrial countries. Given that, there is no reason why everybody who should pay taxes is not paying taxes. I would focus more on tracking data and better tax administration to get at where money is not being declared. I think it is very hard in this modern economy to hide your money that easily.”Source - LivemintHuffingtonpostBusiness StandardEdit1: The new 2000 currency note was initially printed at Mysuru Mint. Thank you User-12623941048551877892 for pointing this out. ReferenceEdit2: Those who are cursing the government for demand supply mismatch of notes should read below possible reasons.a) Had Mr. Rajan had continued as governor, the scenario could have been different. More 2000 notes could have been printed due to availability of time.b) Only one printing press (Mysuru) was used to print the new notes initially. So it limited the printing capability and increased the distribution duration to all banks across the country.c) Only availability of 100 rupee notes decreased ATM's capability in terms of value.d) Change in dimensions of the currency note increased ATM up-gradation time both in terms of software and hardware.e) The no of ATMs for withdrawal got reduced as CDMs couldn't be used for withdrawal. Otherwise people would get same old currency deposited by some other person.Details on SPMCILThank you everyone for the Upvotes. This is not so a customary ‘thank you’ note, but it means a lot to me in keep going. This was my 2nd answer on Quora and 1st answer to receive 1000+ Upvotes that too within two days. :)PS: I’m politically neutral and don’t have any strong support for any of the political parties. But whenever I come across some exceptional steps by them( may be by BJP or Congress or AAP), I criticize or appreciate. The scenario is not ideal always and as per a report 61% of all projects fail to succeed (delivered on time, on budget, and with required features and functions) 43% are challenged (late, over budget, and/or with fewer than the required features and functions) 18% fail (either cancelled prior to completion or delivered and never used). So let’s appreciate this man for the huge step taken.
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If public and private PGP keys are factors of large numbers, why do they appear as text and not an integer?
PGP keys get stored as very large binary numbers, but get shared inside a specific text-encoded form defined by RFC 4880, the OpenPGP Message Format.As an example, let’s look at an “ASCII Armored” block containing my public key:-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: Keybase OpenPGP v1.0.3 Comment: https://keybase.io/crypto xsFNBFQTaJABEAC3r7hjaTIrEmTZP32QB2tAyDLINzGq6oHXggacfvnVK1viAGUb mROmv6gV3Cj9Bb6m4LNLAohYPIFatMhGwgB+ou8zxCMsiP6HKT6Cp6z2PJK2iFRS 6fHv87CjNhenuDhlfoPIyuhBA+f9L5Qqkzt1BaOKpxoRYbsOqMUHa3Grsk0hf3ce nxkUZIYLoYfLwFTtPJTM8NGfdhgZ9yTO1bt7P+709+mfPRi/5r55qXOf8XvmONls rxuYfcsckQ6JDOf32JltxyTAx18H8pepdEGxw8MIWy8eoKGH1AkRXA3D0qYQ/lWU F/R3Nod+LXAWmN+rKypnoFi0Q958TgCsJXXRPrbLgC5jPNLCPWcwE5WhTWfjEQGl iD52XrBj96VNlD0menG9CjLzNgVwP0FzH7HcbfZlhfFcWmemWwVUFbwf+jUL9t7c pjZyoGLov4u8fbxBjmIYRb+NPY0Rg00Dv9t/+AUCe4fjEVlN/5FqYftv+p5z5H09 AdMkve5DX+55A6Adm0afKoYVI6Ztilvjd4N3sr9pBkb9r1W10wC8kkXUBXrUrpoN 8hrVKyCb8cEaLvF62Sq/01eXcZ+3Z9tBtR+qC95IycS/Cr/kwzNFd9nDbwU+MsJc tA9EEcf0IqUgLXP19GZpOvA4uiVsfB9gqhPTsQEAhfLaTxQwlGjEOypDCwARAQAB zSdrZXliYXNlLmlvL3JlbWFrZXIgPHJlbWFrZXJAa2V5YmFzZS5pbz7CwW0EEwEK ABcFAlQTaJACGy8DCwkHAxUKCAIeAQIXgAAKCRCWg/YO9y4ORceBD/4jlRpg8DOQ x91pHcyz0Qj6eEDd9EpuI3jZ7N65AzCA2psIKnKLHb8ZrtocmLb13K5sskbKhzQx KnMjAehjPiA2JejwJ/6Bwh2LXb4l4LEvCRfNlIDgw6T9HnJFE3FkDB9N2C/6kQcI +b23lwXISPnhTmuaHavCazR0QojAsrk5ad71yooGXAWiP0dHYE0OFQXexV2sHHEy yj1fxrDOR7VSJXTjFB84Esv6p5scJ4mVb8F1WHbI6RqjPraPHWk9MmDg0p36TT/e rn6NBQUNq5r+6pg4ikHFRyY5fTlYaY6UjnUHFhoKJtgHu2A5Bzn7ByYYTh97Ft4u KuFmHRC1J8BXnpgGOzOqypHHvkKnynhH4Suk0322jgotRHefmEotMVP0vU+OL811 pXjL4V2tehw9Sb9ruVH5ZpsArEEWxVJG7iPaxXZEPppIYPdIwzjzBEueJnSAtLPf Ct5yi8PjldA7q6NY8nMLJQxYAe//EJG16Fy9okxX4y8wdV+VsTr7yBe9qND2RnHs sAiVW7uD9Yy4wtruUn7Niga6m5xQp3twhx9es5O/rErxq04JTqn/8RPZvvVpvhHq jczUp3CRdC22AYM5gQrjkd2k1r/zkrEVCuRamr8Rnk05dv0kKeGYB/KYGPZWjCKD 1HmKMXGbauaf49+sNxIa87VEpbO3lXreIc7ATQRUE2iQAQgAu8LLyxOn+DY9yMKz XUnA/0lGBrdun8We81m6OUwlkAMBu/AItXzXd9teqew11piXOpkTVWv40SEwF7OP UAVdAuXT6OCuTIerBUHRWZP+bRfH6qskU9lmHxbOwGEWn1jfykqCjKXmKy4Q0QqR pg1ZWr+DV6WODFT+av6mkUETIHW7MRIo46HQr/axAUwglVHprxwDraXlecoZPKXh 59hfCTXRoO2A1hEQWPGYzbi7QZUzMTveYo828jVkMtWBJvQKOeXLd9S7lG7up1Bo NOrFs+U7wSrtVXbZg6yUanh2j7CTEVJFv2IaFWduKd05Syn08e2oeS2J9/mh6tz2 2QXWQQARAQABwsKEBBgBCgAPBQJUE2iQBQkPCZwAAhsCASkJEJaD9g73Lg5FwF0g BBkBCgAGBQJUE2iQAAoJEBjPOTkHW0NB5I8H/2ITMu5zSs7PSgjCQKhq3lvGqi3+ WCY+9vY4xIM1EQdTrXz29AzXdWE6XD4K8UF7EzJQu+LUg4O2ZkWfJU1qbGsSb9Bj wqPfkFzcck2YDGZDoa71L0KYXZTe59qZnN88MYl+wIU/dpKoygfP+7S7Ql4tTd2/ hnZNRedq+d3tvV9fv9unhkmk3ETeb9/rFSTQjO4ZkP4PeSKp8Nm4SeekTy0MR55r 55Akk98/D5sWs9EmoCyLIcVPyF4byVtFn/+qjowKURz1zaUuDkXEG9QynfycI+FO M/3TK81/3tAF840PaSQrpeLvvm28CCWAKkrvrsrby+0pdJq7wSQfsdGvZkyMRg// Q++cQPTSlqNYFbYzecn9xcg/fx7eLhTc4QNCnYg00JDv60N+PzjqalV3Fmouw9WN O4DxlxUbt/JfvlbgJlAYIKoSyItWy460aBqdyVPwVTyQwBpEveKAIMJ+X/9BMXmE ZTOhVOaLj3SRhoQj5rG0Wj+krRq7gYetke7kDK75r03l4/u0EbUAPgU15hqbE2wl COjj74xveBGwz/KAhdM1Z8g1Tyo/7qhOTg6lGhg1yJM+Pw1VAA2SE0V2yDXs8y7W l9l03AoL0SvxNI+iH10a8S7W2jtnJ3yge5Xtz2PtcKVRotTm5lreJasIJ4N3jXeS nIQZpHKMo4ZNUln60P+5wtH6fNT28/KSS5K0GoSEq6cDFJv73Xo7xPdK/6ZIbCjJ 2Ca9A2tY60ve80rKabMdjX5hNiz8OUuV9m/mvEpgf7ZmxKGjo8dTRqK2btgFPruo VHNwIVj1/r47QxqRRGqMx8NtfirAg3NwMyJ2UDN2ujpO2HtAS21/qLcHywJR6R9F n8v+HVBI/DKtPQVrz9cXuSqIrbA9J3efdzuiWNQhi9ki5BqZStZlNc8vF9CFr9mU +0hx61VsJaK6dLX1JV4dWOh4ZdJjNIEW0oBoHPzMgQ2e0sOjAy5Bu2alxXIs8Llj nX7KYsFx7ydP5qKv+2WTVSJOTLlHWztFBjtwGMs0XyPOwE0EVBNokAEIAL59oP9F Vzq9hms2mFrX/Nb+7yqP3L9rGvPe6XE9mUo+Oeq3wTpkVXhRLToaA+N6T98JCw0f EIeAwJxhhQ5E73vXK7YfgENTYoGaDd95LG6FrRXbNtkVJ3WNuzWNy+sIXt88MAgw ntx+pidy3blfQLC14+TE+Ci13rtz1xRdpZWWDnKaNIVFS2Kg4Rmb6Err7BtaSIlh rTij+cHcIhcfNsjc8pTfQ93ifiOEJbfbBRd2V/clMrVv8pTc7DHcSZ3FEWWjupu3 OxSSm+67SZuZEnPO6+XMpSynVskify7Vb+mUJ1jHgii711IEwuGKOodF1DoyQ70S xO2IMuSRbT1d8r8AEQEAAcLChAQYAQoADwUCVBNokAUJDwmcAAIbDAEpCRCWg/YO 9y4ORcBdIAQZAQoABgUCVBNokAAKCRDnBqS3ruIN9zy+CACkKkrVO1I2qRGsOSAE WL+xR9kbwggRi5Q0Exh3gBkDSAT39ihgEb6i4tW098Z1HOkN74r8R10yQybCwVrk if4uDuMDDsK04W9ZssP3djGT7whpTU70yNvJVCo6YDwrMywUwldlFDl9/j4ft43s 1poHZrr+Yn+SgboMY1B4cpTFMKkbThmQ1e/DBPb8Zn28v1F6IFEgK6jJ6gJbBSht FAA+1GwCz98oiCZeuA6Y3OXiDKjB4Aw5wFsPXAyNXVhtg2rp4ZsJ/TfKPMgShRTN DpMe4XMkMCdlr848q19XAKWLPAwN+xKpm1i0QNi5rkqyJW4jZHulGmfmjWgVBBC3 dPe9oI8P/1vFNsh3L7Rhdq0QaNff2s/9d5r1TGprQ3QDBue0n4HAP0YAncweR/OR AH7PLuIk1YrOqq3UfNcg0OeAn8DrQgt3ZYzs9RETIhHJrVKKMZTdGkZHEtNI3Ype 6ypeBaeYZSdK/z06goHECY+F6bLtRAjNNxbyb8fxcyllEztiPaT4NkPkB4AZjLPE pftuYgcKZA1CMp/vY9WF1F7bhVJZTEi4O+nrc9hdwocWXfBU7TNhdkA7blvE1UCM +cISQ3jGo6yXItj+2ccCc6ggNbsWYxvj1ijLodSuaKgCR2F96Tleji/yvviPzG36 dyw1bRAhusqyZOsiif32afVu0+r8dFs/gXVE6Dz/zhq4DzhsLmgtZ9SFDuYfnjHd +qbyVIw7X7Hw+sdPd4xrOv9u6Wvpt3ELh+nzxEa36ai+CHHxRQHorfySiiRKuoa+ mXjyWOKVWB1aXELe0a7rA3WgH9qwAs1w6HJnRLPKR5B0GY0JZLacQ492FTX7a2Vd spD/ROZm1z1K95FZ9NLrFSglJYoshoMp9uTyd6qdJrZdNtDwLPiWptmnpvdHnl33 /6ixrIEetvCxHgtFk/aIdWDNEsmnQ+Hg2geC6qUjQnaGhakRe8FaP73AsXh602NO OjTmQLYZWgy3V+nfD8rRQcZooTreW+E2fVO0qA8jCtOQ4jk+8pAQ =hhsQ -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- That block includes my public key and enough information for anyone to send me an encrypted message or verify my signature. The “ASCII Armor” uses Radix-64, or Base64, a scheme to represent an arbitrary binary stream in human-readable characters safe to use for URLs, filenames, and transmission through legacy 7-bit channels.Using pgpdump, you can interpret the underlying data.New: Public Key Packet(tag 6)(525 bytes) Ver 4 - new Public key creation time - Fri Sep 12 14:41:36 PDT 2014 Pub alg - RSA Encrypt or Sign(pub 1) RSA n(4096 bits) - ... RSA e(17 bits) - ... New: User ID Packet(tag 13)(39 bytes) User ID - keybase.io/remaker
New: Signature Packet(tag 2)(557 bytes) Ver 4 - new Sig type - Positive certification of a User ID and Public Key packet(0x13). Pub alg - RSA Encrypt or Sign(pub 1) Hash alg - SHA512(hash 10) Hashed Sub: signature creation time(sub 2)(4 bytes) Time - Fri Sep 12 14:41:36 PDT 2014 Hashed Sub: key flags(sub 27)(1 bytes) Flag - This key may be used to signNow other keys Flag - This key may be used to sign data Flag - This key may be used to encrypt communications Flag - This key may be used to encrypt storage Flag - This key may be used for authentication Hashed Sub: preferred symmetric algorithms(sub 11)(2 bytes) Sym alg - AES with 256-bit key(sym 9) Sym alg - AES with 128-bit key(sym 7) Hashed Sub: preferred hash algorithms(sub 21)(2 bytes) Hash alg - SHA512(hash 10) Hash alg - SHA256(hash 8) Hashed Sub: features(sub 30)(1 bytes) Flag - Modification detection (packets 18 and 19) Hashed Sub: key server preferences(sub 23)(1 bytes) Flag - No-modify Sub: issuer key ID(sub 16)(8 bytes) Key ID - 0x9683F60EF72E0E45 Hash left 2 bytes - c7 81 RSA m^d mod n(4094 bits) - ... -> PKCS-1 New: Public Subkey Packet(tag 14)(269 bytes) Ver 4 - new Public key creation time - Fri Sep 12 14:41:36 PDT 2014 Pub alg - RSA Encrypt or Sign(pub 1) RSA n(2048 bits) - ... RSA e(17 bits) - ... New: Signature Packet(tag 2)(836 bytes) Ver 4 - new Sig type - Subkey Binding Signature(0x18). Pub alg - RSA Encrypt or Sign(pub 1) Hash alg - SHA512(hash 10) Hashed Sub: signature creation time(sub 2)(4 bytes) Time - Fri Sep 12 14:41:36 PDT 2014 Hashed Sub: key expiration time(sub 9)(4 bytes) Time - Sat Sep 10 14:41:36 PDT 2022 Hashed Sub: key flags(sub 27)(1 bytes) Flag - This key may be used to sign data Sub: issuer key ID(sub 16)(8 bytes) Key ID - 0x9683F60EF72E0E45 Sub: embedded signature(sub 32)(284 bytes) Ver 4 - new Sig type - Primary Key Binding Signature(0x19). Pub alg - RSA Encrypt or Sign(pub 1) Hash alg - SHA512(hash 10) Hashed Sub: signature creation time(sub 2)(4 bytes) Time - Fri Sep 12 14:41:36 PDT 2014 Sub: issuer key ID(sub 16)(8 bytes) Key ID - 0x18CF3939075B4341 Hash left 2 bytes - e4 8f RSA m^d mod n(2047 bits) - ... -> PKCS-1 Hash left 2 bytes - 8c 46 RSA m^d mod n(4095 bits) - ... -> PKCS-1 New: Public Subkey Packet(tag 14)(269 bytes) Ver 4 - new Public key creation time - Fri Sep 12 14:41:36 PDT 2014 Pub alg - RSA Encrypt or Sign(pub 1) RSA n(2048 bits) - ... RSA e(17 bits) - ... New: Signature Packet(tag 2)(836 bytes) Ver 4 - new Sig type - Subkey Binding Signature(0x18). Pub alg - RSA Encrypt or Sign(pub 1) Hash alg - SHA512(hash 10) Hashed Sub: signature creation time(sub 2)(4 bytes) Time - Fri Sep 12 14:41:36 PDT 2014 Hashed Sub: key expiration time(sub 9)(4 bytes) Time - Sat Sep 10 14:41:36 PDT 2022 Hashed Sub: key flags(sub 27)(1 bytes) Flag - This key may be used to encrypt communications Flag - This key may be used to encrypt storage Sub: issuer key ID(sub 16)(8 bytes) Key ID - 0x9683F60EF72E0E45 Sub: embedded signature(sub 32)(284 bytes) Ver 4 - new Sig type - Primary Key Binding Signature(0x19). Pub alg - RSA Encrypt or Sign(pub 1) Hash alg - SHA512(hash 10) Hashed Sub: signature creation time(sub 2)(4 bytes) Time - Fri Sep 12 14:41:36 PDT 2014 Sub: issuer key ID(sub 16)(8 bytes) Key ID - 0xE706A4B7AEE20DF7 Hash left 2 bytes - 3c be RSA m^d mod n(2048 bits) - ... -> PKCS-1 Hash left 2 bytes - a0 8f RSA m^d mod n(4095 bits) - ... -> PKCS-1 The actual public key is identified as an RSA 4096 bit key. The output of pgpdump masks the key itself, as well as the other independently revocable 2048-bit Subkeys. The block also contains a signature in order to thwart tampering.Once the public key block is imported to gpg, I can see the summary of the key data.gpg --list-keys /home/pi/.gnupg/pubring.gpg --------------------------- pub 4096R/F72E0E45 2014-09-12 uid keybase.io/remaker sub 2048R/075B4341 2014-09-12 [expires: 2022-09-10] sub 2048R/AEE20DF7 2014-09-12 [expires: 2022-09-10] Humans have no reason to see the actual binary value of the 4096 bit key; only the actual algorithms need it. The absurdly large value does not fit into the 32 and 64 bit values used for a typical integer.Just for fun, I used the commandgpg --list-packets --verbose --debug 0x02 To do a full dump of the key, just so you can see it.My 4096 bit key is, in hex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nsurprisingly, all standard hexadecimal to decimal converters barf on such a big number.While one might experience some amusement in expressing this value in Base10, it would be hard to justify the effort to do so.See also: Anatomy of a GPG Key -
Where can we use class 2 and class 3 digital signature certificates?
Click here for Digital Signature CertificateDigital signature certificates or DSC are required for filing income tax returns, company filings, import export clearance and e-tenders.A Digital Signature is the equivalent of a physical signature in electronic format, as it establishes the identity of the sender of an electronic document in the Internet. Digital Signatures are used in India for online transactions such as Income Tax E-Filing, Company or LLP Incorporation, Filing Annual Return, E-Tenders, etc., There are three types of Digital Signatures, Class I, Class II and Class III Digital Signature. Class I type of Digital Signatures are only used for securing email communication. Class II type of Digital Signatures are used for Company or LLP Incorporation, IT Return E-Filing, Obtaining DIN or DPIN, and filing other forms with the Ministry of Corporate Affairs and Income Tax Department. Class III type Digital Signatures are used mainly for E-Tendering and for participating in E-Auctions. Digital Signatures come in the form of a USB E-Token, wherein the Digital Signature Certificate is stored in a USB Drive and can be accessed through a computer to sign documents electronically.With E-Return filing becoming mandatory for Income Tax Assesses with an income of over Rs.5 lakhs per annum, the requirement and prevalence of Digital Signatures has increased manifold. IndiaFilings can help you obtain your Digital Signature hassle-free online. IndiaFilings is a Registered Partner of SIFY and E-Mudhra.Class II Digital Signatures are used for Income Tax E-Filing, Company or LLP Incorporation, Annual Return Filing, etc., Class II Digital Signatures are required to file documents electronically with the Ministry of Corporate Affairs and Income Tax Department.Difference between Class 2 and Class 3 Digital Signature CertificatesIn this day and age of technology, physical signatures are increasingly being converted to digital media for security reasons. Digital Signature Certificates, (DSC) are simply the electronic equivalent of physical or paper certificates such as identity proofs, driver�s licenses, passports or PAN cards. These certificates can prove to be helpful for many online transactions that require digital proof of identities and to receive and send information on the web safely.Organizations and firms, today require digital signature certificate to better facilitate communication and transactions between them and the Ministry of Corporate Affairs. For companies that have a turnover of more than INR 60 Lakhs have to apply for these certifications mandatorily, and it is considered a legally admissible instrument. Besides, it is always wise to get a digital signature as it offers a high level of security for online transactions by ensuring absolute privacy of the information exchanged. These certificates can also be useful for encrypting information that only the intended recipient can have access to. You can digitally sign information to assure the recipient that it has not been changed in transit, and also verify your identity as the sender of the message.There are two main types of Digital Signature Certificates � Class 2 Certificates and Class 3 Digital Signature Certificate. A Class 2 Digital Signature Certificate is used by individuals and is available for download after verification based on a trusted and pre-verified database. A Class 3 Digital Signature Certificate, on the other hand, is of the highest level as it is issued only after the registrant�s identity verification has been carried out by a Registration Authority.Class 2 Digital Signature Certificates are generally used for filing documents Income Tax, Registrar of Companies and VAT, whereas Class 3 Digital Signature Certificates are needed for e-tendering, which is a procurement process that is conducted online. The aspects where this comes into play include: � Contract download� Evaluation of tenders (May or may not involve e-auctions)� Supplier registration/expression of interest� Submission of bid documentThe Ministry of Company Affairs, Government of India (GoI) has initiated MCA21 program, for easy and secure access to its services in a manner that best suits the businesses and citizens. The MCA21 application is designed to support Class 2 & 3 Digital Signature Certificates (DSC) issued by licensed signNowing Authority under Controller of signNowing Authorities.
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What is the difference between class 2 and class 2B digital signature?
Class 2 Digital Signature Certificate can be issued to individual or an authorized individual on the behalf of any organization. Class 2 Digital Signature Certificate is available for download after verification based on a trusted and pre-verified databaseWhereas Class 2B Digital signature certificates are issued to Organization for various purposes. Class 2B digital signatures for organization is personal certificate that provides second highest level of assurance within the RCAI hierarchy setup by CCA (Controller of signNowing Authorities) in India which is mainly used for e tender filing, E Procurement, E Bidding, Bank Auction and Document Signing.
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What are some great tools to use for sales prospecting?
I think that we all agree that the days of manual prospecting are long gone. If you automate your prospecting efforts you can save a lot of time and money, and streamline your whole sales process. But, since there are lots of prospecting tools in the market, it can be hard to figure out which ones are good and which ones you should avoid.I’ll give you a couple of suggestions based on the tools I used.Email Hunter is a decent little program that can extract a list of every single one company email. All you need to enter is a company domain, and you will soon be able to email any person from a company. You can use either its dedicated Chrome plugin, or you can do your search by means of their browser version. This program can come in really handy if you want to find the email of a particular decision maker and get in touch with them directly.HeadsignNow is another interesting tool that offers more options than Email Hunter as it has some advanced search features. This means that you can search prospects based on various criteria such as name, company, title, or website. You can also expect to find your prospects’ social media handles and memorize your search logs.Autoklose isn’t your average prospecting tool, mainly because it offers much more. It’s actually a sales automation platform that can dramatically speed up your sales cycle, and prospecting is just one of the weapons in its arsenal. Apart from automating your prospecting efforts and saving you a tremendous amount of time, Autoklose will make your job and life easier by automating your email marketing efforts, amplifying your follow-ups, providing you with detailed campaign stats and metrics, and streamlining numerous dull, repetitive tasks that have to be done during the sales process.When it comes to prospecting, Autoklose allows you several powerful methods of filling your funnel with quality leads.Upload your own reliable contacts from .CSV files and Autoklose will import the information in the database so that you can make lists according to various parameters, and additionally segment them in order to create customized outsignNow campaigns and improve your open and click-through rates;Connect your Salesforce account and sync the data with Autoklose thus growing your internal database. What’s great about this platform is that it prevents you from sending the same email to the same person twice;Gain access to a huge B2B leads database and find prospects from virtually any industry. I was impressed with the abundance of prospects that I could actually contact. This database is managed by Autoklose’s reliable third-party providers, and it’s absolutely clean and packed with verified, complete, and updated contact information.It’s clear that Autoklose gives you a plenty of prospecting options, and the fact that you can search for your potential customers by using different parameters makes it in a way similar to HeadsignNow, but one of the main and most important differences is that Autoklose provides you with validated data which undergoes a meticulous 50-point data-scrub, meaning that every missing field is filled in, and every email, phone number, address, and job title is checked both manually and through the proprietary technology. To cut the long story short, Autoklose keeps you covered and gives your prospecting a big boost.
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What are common programming errors or "gotchas" in C++?
Plain Arrays are just as dangerous in C++ as they are in C. you can overshoot them, or give a bad index parameter and the whole thing goes off the rails.Pointers in C++ are the same pointers as in C, with all the things you need to do to make them safer to use, plus they can point to classes.Type restrictions are stricter in C++ than in C, so porting a C code base to C++ is mostly trivial unless some loose typing is involved, then you will have to be more explicit with the types.Arrays declared in C++ have their declared size as part of their type (stricter typing).int a[10] ; // type int[10] , not int*Structs are first class objects in C++ just like classes but with all public members.Struct declarations automatically generate the Big 5 default functions:Constructor,Copy constructor,Assignment constructor,Move constructor,Destructor.Function overloading is based on parameters being unique. C++ ‘mangles’ the function names internally to be unique based on return type and parameter type.Declaring an object causes its allocation and then runs its constructor. The object is fully ready once its construction is complete. If the object has members, they are constructed as well with sane default values.An object’s default initialization values for members of classes and structs:integer types set to zero;floating point types set to 0e0pointer members are not set. They must be explicitly initialized. Ifthe member will not be assigned at construction, you can specify aninitial value of nullptr in the definition or a constructor initialization list.Arrays are allocated but the values are not set if the array contents are not initialized by default. An array of class objects will have its contents initialized, but an array of ints or floats or pointers will not.reference members must be bound to initialized objects in the definition or the constructor.C has malloc() and free() — C++ has those too, but generally uses new and delete.new creates and initializes objects, leaving then in a ready to use state. If the object has initialization beyond that it is performed, then a pointer is returned.If any members of the object need initialization they are performed as well.In other words the full constructor code is performed when invoked with new.The object is created on the heap memory, and persists until deleted or the program ends.delete does a complete destruction of an object, and all its members, calling any destructors its members may have.Copying an object instance allocates a new instance and makes a binary copy of its contents. This is a shallow copy, though. If the object contains pointers or references to other objects as members, the pointers and references are copied, not what they point to. You have to write code to do the copying in that case.STL containers such as std::array, std::vector, std::string, etc, have code to automatically copy their entire contents, but custom classes need it to be written out.An initializer list is efficient in C++. If the class or struct is “trivially constructed”, that is all members are ready after calling the class constructor, then an initializer list can be used to automatically construct an instance with the members of the list. No extra copying needs to be done; the compiler will optimize the instantiation most of the time.std:string s[4] = { "one", "two", "three", "four"}; /* four std::strings are created with the contents of each char array. s is created and the addresses of each std::string instance are placed in the array. When x goes out of scope, the destructors of each element are called. */ struct K { int x[4]; int total; }; K k = { {1,2,3,4}, 10 }; // const double pi(3.1415926); // optimized by compiler double twopi = 2.0 * pi; // not optimized const double tau = pi + pi; // optimized // compiler is smart with this new syntax int a[] = { 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, -1, -2, 0,-3 }; int x = 0; for(auto i : a) { std::cout << i << "\t" x = x + i; } std::cout << "\n" << x << "\n"; 4 5 6 7 8 9 -1 -2 0 -3 34 for( long x : { 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} ) { std::cout << x << ",\t"; if (x%5 ==0) std::cout << "\n"; } 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A C++ reference (&) is not a pointer. You have to declare a reference type with an initialization to a valid object. Copying a reference does not copy the object, but adds another reference to the object. You do not need to use pointer syntax with references; it is more like an alias than a pointer. References cannot be reassigned to any other object. When a reference goes out of scope, it unbinds from the object, but the object will still be around, bound to its declared label, until that goes out of scope, then the object destructs.Object obj; // declaration Object& objref = obj; // or references o // a becomes a reference to the input reference. void print( Object& a) { a.print(); } // both calls work // print(obj); // a is ref to obj print(objref); // a is copy of objref Object b(obj); // copy constructor Object c = obj; // copy assignment Object& d = objref; // copy reference, // objref and d refer to same object Object e(objref) // copy constructor // objref dereferenced automatically auto f = obj; // copy obj auto & g = obj; // reference obj auto h = objref; // copy obj auto & j = objref; // copy reference This makes references safer than pointers, yet you still get the pass by ref advantage, without the pointer hassle and syntax. Also you are guaranteed thatyou will not get a NULL pointer by accident passed in.C++ prefers nullptr over NULL, because NULL is a constant integer (0) so can be misused or ambiguous if functions are overloaded to accept integer parameters.nullptr cannot be converted to an integer, so always will refer to a “pointer to nothing” as intended. Any type of pointer can be assigned nullptr.The C++ template system is amazing, but it has to be able to create an actual legal C++ function or class with actual types and variables to compile. A template is not generic, it synthesizes a specific function with all the template parameters filled-out and then compiles that, from the template recipe and the parameters passed in at compile-time. It cannot ‘figure out’ at run time if the parameters are correct; it will probably catch any ambiguities though. Templates are confusing for beginners because they can not see the actual code produced by them, but eventually they get the idea that the template code is not what is being run, the actual code created by the template is run.#include
template T add(T a, T b) { return a + b; } void f() { int i = add(5, 6); std::string x("kitty"), y("doggy"); std::string c = add(x, y); } generates:template int add(int a, int b) { return a + b; } // std::basic_string is what std::string really is template > std::basic_string add(std::basic_string a, std::basic_string b) { return a + b; } template T add(T a, T b) { return a + b; } ; void f() { int i = add(5, 6); std::string x("kitty"), y("doggy"); std::string c = add(x, y); } -
What does coherence in coherent light means, what kind of light that can be considered as coherent?
Our grade-school textbooks teach that laser light is “monochromatic,” and also that it’s “coherent.” Monochromatic isn’t hard to understand. It just means “single color,” where the light has a single pure frequency, like the note from a flute, but made of E&M.What then does “coherent” mean? You’ll find all sorts of confusing explanations, mostly wrong. (Either they’re wrong, or they’re correct but aimed at high-level education, and expressed as math-language rather than simple sentences.) But don’t worry, the simple sentence version does exist.To understand coherence, first ask, “what is INcoherent light?” That’s easy. It’s light that comes from a bunch of independent sources. The hot atoms in an electric heating element, or in a tungsten light bulb filament, they spew out incoherent light. So does the sun. So does the fluorescent coating on a mercury-vapor tube. Important: when we look into incoherent light, we see an object with an “extended” shape. Look backwards into an incoherent beam, and we’ll see a coiled filament, or a glowing cylinder-tube, or a lit candle. Or for the sun, an intensely bright disk. Incoherent sources look like a sheet of white paper. Or red paper, etc., a broad diffuse object.Incoherent light comes from fancy shapes. Coherent light then is *single-source light.” When we gaze into coherent light, we don’t see any shape. Instead, we see an intensely-brilliant dot. A pinpoint. A “point source” of light. Not a small disk. Instead, it’s more like seeing a single atom, but intensely bright.For incoherent light, whenver we focus the light with a lens, and let the focused image land upon a white screen, what do we see? We’ll see a little upside-down light bulb. Or perhaps a coiled, glowing tungsten filament, or a spiral CCFL tube, always upside-down. But if we do the same with coherent light, instead we’ll only see a brilliant pinpoint. (It might even burn a tiny hole through our screen.)Coherent light is the light from pinholes.To convert an incoherent source into a coherent source, just pass its light through an extremely tiny pinhole. Coherent light looks like perfect sphere-waves, or perfect plane-waves. This makes perfect sense, since the light from a pinhole is going to be an electromagnetic sphere-wave. (Or, if you’re far from the pinhole, then it looks like a plane-wave.) It’s a single pinpoint source, so there aren’t any swerving interference patterns or out-of-phase regions. Just a perfect sphere-wave.Here’s a bit of odd trivia. Light from the sun is quite incoherent. The sun looks like a white, glowing disk. However, starlight is extremely coherent. Starlight is far more coherent than the light from the best lasers ever made! But but but …the stars are distant enormous suns! That’s right. As light travels away from an incoherent source, it becomes more and more coherent. If we look at the sun we see a disk, but if we look at the stars, we only see geometric points, and this point-source appearance is the signature of all coherent light sources. As starlight travels, all the waves combine, adding or canceling, to form single spherical ripples. Close to a sun its light is incoherent, but let it travel for a lightyear and it becomes more coherent than laser light.We could try looking at conventional coherent light. Just get a laser tube that’s ten feet long and about a foot wide. Gaze into its beam. (First better turn the power down to far below 1/1000 watt!!) What do you see in the foot-wide laser beam? A brilliant spark! An intensely bright star. The light from lasers has no image. It’s dangerous to look at, because the lens in your eye will concentrate the light into a tiny pinpoint on your retina. Remember that we can easily look at 100watt light bulbs? A light bulb doesn’t look like an infinitely-small spark. It’s image is safe to look at, because it’s spread out to form an extended shape.But even a one-watt laser, even with its beam spread out, can easily punch a permanent hole in your vision.Back in the early 60s, Winston Kock of Bell Labs said: laser light is sharper light. It’s a sharp tool. He got that exactly right. With coherent light, lenses can focus it down to form an incredibly sharp cutting tool. But if you only have a thousand-watt light bulb, then those same lenses will only produce a small, upside-down image of the bulb, and that won’t punch any holes through steel razor blades.
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What is the procedure to convert the CPT (IPCC old) syllabus to the direct entry old syllabus?
You can make the conversion request via offline / online (Mandated to submit printed hard copy and supporting documents to your nearest ICAI POS).Offline ModeOffline Mode:Visit nearest ICAI POS, ask for the conversion form, get it filled and submit it to the ICAI (Don't forget to take a photo-copy of it for future reference).Common form & same procedure for any types of conversion Made across offline but the only thing which is going to be different is your selected option (In your case you need to select CPT ROUTE TO DIRECT ENTRY ROUTE).Online Mode:Direct Link given below:Direct Link to Student Registration Dashboard (Read the full procedures before clicking the link)https://sdb.icai.org/stud/defaul...CDS : ICAI BOOKS STORE (CENTRAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM)icai-cds.orgProcedures:Click on the Direct Link given in this article (After reading the complete article).Create an account / sign in with your login information (If you've already created an account).Select the appropriate online form (Please make sure that you have chosen the appropriate conversation form [In Your case, you need to select CPT ROUTE TO DIRECT ENTRY ROUTE INTERMEDIATE)Please fill the form and make sure that you have all the necessary documents ready and handy to attach digitally (Some of the documents such as signature, photos, supporting documents and etc. may be having a file size limit so make sure that you fulfill all the instructions mentioned on the portal of registration (Direct Link given below)Take a print outYou'll only receive a email confirmation for this conversion (No physical letters will be sent to your address). You are strongly advised to take printout and keep it safe somewhere you keep all the educational documents.You will be given two coupon code which can be redeemed at ICAI CDS (ICAI CENTRAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OF BOOKS) and the books will be provided at free of cost (Shipping charges extra). If you didn't received any coupon code you may need to email them with the email address available on the contact page of CDS. (Links given)Shipping may be take around 15–20 days depending on the courier. (It took 18 days to me to signNow Chennai)Direct Link to Student Registration Dashboard : https://sdb.icai.org/stud/defaul...(Please note that the above mentioned portal may be slow to load, in case if you are facing any issues please try after sometime or see the navigation steps to find the link by yourself on ICAI website.)Navigation to the Student Registration Dashboard (ICAI.org)Visit The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (Clickable Link)Click on e-Services (Menu on the upper right corner just underneath the SEARCH bar.You'll be redirected to a post, which has two body headings. 1. Members 2. Students. Under Students, you'll find the link (Most probably the first link) saying “Student's Dashboard for Registration in FOUNDATION Course, INTERMEDIATE / Direct Entry Course, New FINAL Course, All Conversion Forms (From Old to New Course) and Re-Validation Forms”Click on it.Good luck!
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