Install Electronic signature Presentation Myself

I was under cover as a mentally challenged, brain damaged individual. The client believed this private contractor hired to work on high end copy machines, was stealing these electronic boards worth $1,500 USD. This was in the early 90’s and it was challenging to install a surviellance video system for small jobs. So we came in with a plan to install a video camera in the small room where the boards were stored. However the battery had a limited life and we had to change it periodically without his knowing. I was supposed to be part of an equal opportunity program where I worked nights sweeping up and assisting in menial tasks.They felt he wouldn't be deterred by my presence since I wouldn't be smart enough to understand what he was doing. When the opportunity presented I would sweep on into the store room and then change the battery. I played the role to the hilt. He bought my act hook line and sinker. At times I would sit on the fork lift and pretend to be driving and make motor sounds with my lips. While bouncing up and down turning the steering wheel. He would just chuckle and ask if I was having fun. I just smiled back sheepishly. This went on all night and finally it was time to leave. He was concerned about leaving me alone there by myself. I explained I called for my ride from the home and they were on their way.On our way out we made small talk and I pointed to my head and said “brain damage”. He sounded very concerned and asked how it happened. I just said “accident”. Then he asked what I did for work before that. I said “"I was a architect”. He then said “Ohhhhh” as if he had just heard a very sad story. I went on “I did the green building downtown”. He said “"you mean the Emerald Building?” (A signature building in the San Diego Skyline at night). I said “"yeah that’s it”. Then he looked very sad for me shaking his head in concern as if a great mind had been lost. So I know he was buying the ruse all the way and I was having fun doing it. But after all was said and done, we didn't catch him stealing anything. But it was the best ruse I ever came up with in my work.

What are some cryptocurrencies in which I should invest? After several months of trading cryptocurrencies and watching the market become saturated with “hype” coins, I started to concentrate on platform coins with working products. Platform coins are blockchains that other blockchains can be built off of— like Ethereum. Nearly every utility token was built off Ethereum’s blockchain. In addition, they often have smart contract and ICO capabilities.Platform coins are also great to hold because they often have “proof of stake” consensus, or variants like Delegated Byzantine Fault Tolerance (DBFT) in Neo’s case. Long story short, holding these type o...

One cannot deny that putting Asimov's Foundation series up on the big screen presents a real challenge, between screenwriters, producers, and directors, to say nothing of the moguls who finance and greenlight the project only if they think it might make a profit.The easiest part to explain is the moguls. Experience often shows that if you aim high as to intelligence, the movie ends up as a small "indie" film, or about as successful as one, but if you aim low, there is little to no risk of losing money by insulting the intelligence of the audience. Even the very stupidest movies can become "cult classics" out of their sheer stupidity (think of "Food Fight" or "Garbage Pail Kids" or "Felix the Cat" or “Plan 9 From Outer Space”). Foundation does not scale down well in intelligence, so very little money will ever likely be put into it.Producers and directors want to put lots of explosions and space battles in it because they think this will make the movie more exciting to audiences, but this would so severely betray and violate the whole point and charm of a Foundation film. The temptation seems to be to use the title, and perhaps some of the characters and basic situations, and then throw a lot of name stars and useless special effects, love affairs and sex scenes, shootouts and chases, all with no connection to the story at it, and hope that makes it a hit. But it is the writers who have the biggest challenge.Dr. Asimov gives this account of his rereading of the original Foundation trilogy when preparing to begin its next novel, “Foundation’s Edge”: “… about the end of May, I picked up my own copy of The Foundation Trilogy and began reading. I had to. For one thing, I hadn't read the Trilogy in thirty years and while I remembered the general plot, I did not remember the details. Besides, before beginning a new Foundation novel I had to immerse myself in the style and atmosphere of the series. I read it with mounting uneasiness. I kept waiting for something to happen, and nothing ever did. All three volumes, all the nearly quarter of a million words, consisted of thoughts and of conversations. No action. No physical suspense. What was all the fuss about, then? Why did everyone want more of that stuff?—To be sure, I couldn't help but notice that I was turning the pages eagerly, and that I was upset when I finished the book, and that I wanted more, but I was the author, for goodness' sake.”One of the biggest criticisms of the work is that it seems to consist almost entirely of people talking in rooms. An attempt to turn those conversations into impressive space battles would invariably fall flat on its face. The complaint has also been made that there are no continuing characters in this series. Though a person might show up in a couple segments (e. g. Salvor Hardin), and of course, Hari Seldon’s influence in the form of the Seldon Plan runs throughout the whole series, unifying it, there are no characters who exist throughout the whole thing. There is always the question of what to leave out and what to keep in, and what might be added that an audience would want to see. Audiences are often hard to please, and probably hardest when dealing with going from a book to a movie where the book is so well-known that everyone watching the movie will quickly see what was changed, and generally comment unfavorably on that difference.Then there is the problem of what to do with the technology. Extrapolations of 1940’s technology pervade the series, and when putting it to film what should one do? The most common approach seems to update the technology to predictable extrapolations of whatever technology is current when the film is being shot. It is generally easier and can help present day audiences to feel we are dealing with a “future” when seeing technologies which seem so to us today. But such attempts rapidly become dated, and instead of portraying a time at least 12,000 years in the future it ends up instead portraying a time at least 20 years past. Think of how AOL-styled emails of “You’ve Got Mail” (1998) rapidly came to look ridiculous in comparison to the snail mail of “Shop Around the Corner” (1940) that still hold up. Or again, “The Puppet Masters” (1994), following the book so closely in some ways (especially in the first part) and in the casting of the three main leads, but then deviated in several ways (most notably from a technological standpoint) by introducing satellite heat signature recognition as a way of detecting who is infected and deleting the whole Titans subplot.The biggest problem in that area was the slow progress in computer technology in the Foundation series. Who could have believed in the 1940’s and 1950’s that computers would become so powerful and at the same time so microminiaturized within a scant 50 years, and yet at the same time Robotics (and especially the ability to create a functional humanoid robot, complete with at least apparent feelings, thoughts, creativity, problem-solving, and imagination, as to approximate human capabilities, coupled with machine-like perfection and speed, remains far behind the levels that Asimov expected for the same period in his Robot series. So here we are supposedly 12,000 or more years in the future and yet in the story shipboard computers are barely above the level of the surprisingly primitive computers of the Apollo Lunar Module. Since computing power does factor in on occasion, what do we do with that in such a movie?Granted, these are all serious challenges, far too great for the limited imaginations of our typical Hollywood types to work with (hence their proclivity to make dumb sequels and retreads, all because they just can’t think of anything else), so it really is quite possible that there may never be a Foundation movie, or just as bad, never a credible adaptation of it that retains anything much at all of what the series is truly all about. But is it really all that impossible? I think not.Let’s start with one of the easier things to deal with, namely the technology of so distant a future. There is a new and better approach that already has some precedent in the steampunk and retrofuturism movements, first glimpsed on film (that I know of) in “1984” (1984), in which the technology seen was not the mid-1980’s technology as it actually existed currently, but a reasonable projection of the future from what things were like in 1948 when George Orwell originally penned the novel. By 1984, real offices often had mainframe computers with (dumb) terminals in each office, and would email to transmit messages about, but in “1984” they are still using pneumatic tubes. It is as if someone with all the cinematography skills and techniques and experience we have today were to have existed back in 1948 and had been sufficiently funded to apply those skills as needed. With this approach, all of the technological anachronisms of Foundation cease to be a problem; we are simply telling the story as originally envisioned by the author, and as originally read by its first readers in it own original time. This could also be a good approach in connection with the men and women and how they relate to each other, no need to impose contemporary norms; anyway, Asimov has some truly good and strong female characters as written, albeit set in ways that seem out of sync with how people view things today. Just treat it like a period piece.Next, let’s look at how the problem of the moguls (and of funding) might also be solved, and best so “in the typewriter,” so to speak. The answer to this is largely staring us in the face already, namely the fact that so very much of the series is just people talking in rooms. How about simply forget trying to figure out portrayals of the things discussed and simply have the conversations as given in the series itself? That one thing alone would be a truly vast savings on production costs. Another big savings would be that for what few space battles are seen the technology that now exists has made the production of such scenes much easier and cheaper that it would have been in former years. CGI graphics today has come a long way, and even “last year’s technology” in that could still look quite excellent and sufficient for the needs of this series.People talking in rooms doesn’t sound very exciting, and hardly a basis for a movie, but then recall “My Dinner With Andre” (1981) which, despite being literally nothing but two guys having a conversation in a restaurant, actually manages to be quite captivating as a truly excellent film. Only, instead of discussing philosophies of life what we have here are power brokers discussing the direction the future should take, making all-important decisions, negotiations, and even outright takeovers. As Khan said (in the Star Trek episode, Space Seed), “It has been said that social occasions are only warfare concealed.” Or again, think of your average courtroom drama. What, after all, IS a “Courtroom Drama,” but “people talking in a room”? And for that matter, one early scene consists of Hari Seldon himself in some sort of actual “trial.” About 95% of the whole Foundation saga can properly be regarded as a “bottle show.” It is always the search for survival, as well as the truth about the Plan: How will Hari Seldon avoid having his group shut down by the Empire? How will the Foundation, now located on Terminus at the edge of the Galaxy, drive Anacreon from their soil? How can the Foundation religion be used to turn aside a subsequent attack from Anacreon? How will trade replace the religion as a much further means of expansion? How does the Foundation survive the last great attack of the declining old Empire? What recourse is there if history fails to unfold as planned? And so forth.Any film that rises even the tiniest bit above the mere shoot-em-up has to feature scenes of exposition, people talking and explaining what has been going on, or what scam the bad guy is trying to pull, or what the good guy is doing to fight it, or “whodunit?” and so forth. The Foundation series is almost pure exposition. So actually, it is mostly comprised of the most interesting part of most films. Where would Star Wars be without “No, Luke, I am your father”? All the swordplay that precedes and follows that iconic moment of exposition almost might as well be a mere arm-wrestle for all the interest it has in comparison.Science fiction writer and critic James Gunn said of the Foundation series, “Action and romance have little to do with the success of the Trilogy—virtually all the action takes place offstage, and the romance is almost invisible—but the stories provide a detective-story fascination with the permutations and reversals of ideas.” If any attempt to film Foundation is to prove credible, at the very least this detective-story fascination with permutations and reversals of ideas must feature at the center of it all. Yes, there can be room for some action or romance, but these things must take a back seat (if present at all). Think of Murder She Wrote, or Columbo, or Ellery Queen. It is not any (much) action or romance that drives the tale (though those things can enter in occasionally), but (in those cases) the seeking for the truth. This last of course points to something else about how to do it, namely as a television miniseries. Think of the different ways that a war is portrayed in films versus television shows: In a feature film one can have a “cast of thousands,” a veritable sea of soldiers fighting throughout a vast battlefield, but on television it makes far more sense to show merely a few single pairs of soldiers duking it out. Foundation is full of such “single pairs” and small groups “duking it out” with psychohistory, or with the mentalic powers of the Mule or of the Second Foundation.That leads to the last point, namely casting decisions. When making feature films one often tends to seek out known “name” talent, but in this case such “name” talent should only be permitted if their own interest in such a project would make them willing to accept a pay scale commensurate with that of new and (relatively) unknown and untried acting talent. It is amazing how people, especially those who understand how a future career in acting depends upon their performance here, can rise to the occasion in ways that surprise everyone including themselves. As for the lack of continuing characters throughout the series, even that need not be considered much of a problem. Making a series about, for example, the Bible, or even such a miniseries as Roots, certainly did not suffer from the lack of a single continuing character (unless you want to count God in the first case, or Racism (as like a “character”) in the second. And for that there is Psychohistory and the Seldon Plan.So, is it doable? Absolutely! Will it happen, and in a credible manner? Unfortunately those sorts of decisions extremely seldom fall to those capable of making them competently. Given enough time, almost anything, however unlikely, is practically bound to occur, eventually. Just don’t hold your breath waiting for it.ADDENDUM:Well, it looks like this could happen after all. Apple has greenlit a feasible effort which even includes Isaac Asimov's own daughter among the production staff. Perhaps previous attempts have failed due to attempts to compress such a vast saga into a single film instead of a series. For myself, I pictured a 4-part miniseries, each part (ranging from 90 to 120 minutes including credits) taking on about three "installments" per part:Part 1 (Founding the Foundation): The Psychohistorians, The Encyclopedists, The MayorsPart 2 (Facing the Empire): The Merchant Princes, The Traders, The General (I will get to the rationale for the order reversal, below)Part 3 (The Mule): The Mule (both parts, as published November and December 1945), Search by the MulePart 4 (The Two Foundations): Search by the Foundation (all three parts, as published November and December 1949 and January 1950)I had dreams of trying to write the screenplay myself (contract or no, just for my own interest), but that probably won't ever be realized, at least not in the immediately foreseeable future, but I do have some thoughts; they are truly mine, apart from their direct borrowing from Asimov's original work and also the existing stories authorized by the Asimov estate, and I offer them freely, hoping that other fans will pick up on these and say, "yes, these are good ideas" and hope the production will be positively influenced by them.One idea is to borrow a bit more from the original series as published in Astounding, which differs somewhat from the book versions. For example, the original published installment (now known as the Encyclopedists) had a short series of paragraphs portraying a meeting conducted by Hari Seldon which might be combined with the closing parts of the Psychohistorians, such that he says, not merely to Gaal Dornick one on one, but to his gathered Psychohistorians and Mathematicians at the close of the last meeting he is to preside at, "I am finished!"In that same vein of pointing to the original published stories, The Traders would be about an episode from the past life of Lathan Devers. It would be added after the part (in The General) that introduces Emperor Cleon II and Brodrig and before we return to Bel Riose and Ducem Barr. Sennet Forrell and his three cronies are again gathered, and Sennet is introducing his fellow members to this Trader who really is a real Trader (unlike the fake "Trader" Jaim Twer who was found out by Hober Mallow), loyal to the Foundation, a great spy, brilliantly clever, and extremely resourceful. To illustrate the point, the events of The Traders (or "The Wedge") are told as a backstory (in only 5-10 minutes of screen time - or 3-5 minutes if we are trying to squeeze it all into a one hour episode) so that audiences can better understand and appreciate who he is, and deepen his character with real Asimov Foundation material originally so intended.(For the books, it made sense to reverse the order of the two stories since to end the first volume on a relatively minor trading victory would have made a very weak ending for the book. The triumph of Hober Mallow and his successful navigation of a Seldon Crisis made for a strong and fitting climax to the first book. So the order was inverted, and as Lathan Devers could not have possibly lived long enough to precede Mallow and then yet still face the Empire, a new protagonist Limmar Ponyets was introduced, along with a few textual adjustments made to that story and Mallow's to make it seem as if their inverted order made sense. But as originally published, it was Lathan Devers who first sold nuclear gadgets to the Askonians, and that could be here reasonably restored. The only other alternative has been to omit The Traders altogether as does (for example) the BBC radio series production.)Now, Apple has greenlit a 10-part television series - how would that divvy up? What I had is effectively 12 parts, but with The Traders subsumed into The General, and the Search by the Foundation, originally published in three parts (but actually not quite as many words as the two parts of The Mule, anyway), could be reduced by producing it in two parts, which brings us down to 10.In point of fact, it appears that Dr. Asimov seems to have expected that his final Foundation novella would be cut into two parts as was his Mule novella, since there is what makes a great cliffhanger in the middle of the middle part, namely where young Arcadia, having just realized that Lady Callia is a Second Foundationer, has just been deposited in a vast and unfriendly space port. She sees signs lit up for ships going all sorts of places; one is even going to Terminus but she can only head-shake "no" openmouthed as she dare not go to the one place she most wishes to go. Doubtless the Second Foundation is setting a trap for her there. In blind fear and panic she spins, seemingly endlessly, in circles not knowing where to turn, where to go, who to trust (as in “a circle has no end”), and now realizing that she knows where the Second Foundation is, and that her life is forfeit should the Second Foundation capture her and learn of her guilty knowledge, she collapses in tears, feeling as lonely and frightened as an abandoned child, but with the weight of the entire future of Galactic civilization upon her shoulders. She looks up as if expecting some answer from a Deity, but all there is, is the camera looking down at her, pulling away as she gets smaller and as more and more of the surrounding crowd bustles around her, grey and altogether indifferent to her plight as the credits roll, until she seems to disappear, lost in the crowd.Narrator: Each segment should have as its narrator someone who is close to the events, but never the main character; Gaal Dornick makes a good narrator for The Psychohistorians, Yohan Lee for The Encyclopedists and The Mayors, Tinter (a lieutenant aboard Mallow's ship) and Ankor Jael (Mallow's trusted friend during his trial and the "War" with Korell), Ducem Barr for The General, Toran Darell (husband of Bayta) for The Mule, Hans Pritcher for Search by the Mule, Homir Munn and Mrs. Palver for Search by the Foundation. The bits of the Encyclopedia Galactica could be read by either the current narrator or by someone else (if someone else, then ideally Peter Jones or someone with a peter jonesey sort of voice as a sort of reference forward-back to the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy would be ultra-cool).Second Foundation anonymity: To keep the Second Foundation figures anonymous in their meetings on their home planet (because their identity has to be concealed during their interactions with ordinary people in ordinary places), all sorts of unusual perspectives could be used. Obviously, no faces can be shown, but very small portions of the actor's face can be shown in extreme close-up: the raising of an eyebrow, the furrowing of a forehead, the crooking of a finger (along with several other hand and arm gestures), the jutting of a chin, the curling of part of a lip, the appearance of a dimple, also figures seen from behind, at a distance, or as black silhouettes against a wall chock full of brightly glowing math equations. Electronically deepen their voices to borderline unrecognizability and add that echo effect to indicate that we are not hearing words conventionally spoken but thoughts intimated to each other through the tiny gestures seen in the various close-ups. Or think of all the ways the faces of the doctors and nurses were cleverly concealed during the twilight episode “Eye of the Beholder” until the reveal at the end.Attention to details from the books could also add greatly despite their seeming insignificance, for example when hologram Seldon puts down his book it disappears, or when the dowagers wonder who Prince Regent Wienis is walking up the stairs to his private room arm-in-arm (Hardin) they lift ornate but actual and recognizable lorgnettes to their faces (I hate the way recent printings of the book just say that the dowagers just "stared after them" - blah!), or Onum Barr finding a box of canned goods (and his passport, returned) in a box on his doorstep after Hober Mallow leaves his planet of Siwenna, showing volumes about Mallow’s character in about ten seconds of screen time, or an actual descending grid of glowing energy squares three meters on a side descending upon the spaceport crowd where Preem Palver is waiting and then bribes an official. And many people in the original series smoke. I know that smoking is frowned on these days, but who is to say that a cancer-free tobacco couldn't be invented in the next 12-50 thousand years? Anyway, the scene where Ebling Mis is sitting on the desk of an intimidated Mayor Indbur, warning him about an upcoming Seldon crisis, definitely loses something if he can't also be blowing cigar smoke into the Mayor's face, and the poor Mayor trying not to cough as he doesn't smoke.Other things to bring in would be details from the synopses from Astounding, for example that the original "Warlord of Kalgan" whom the Mule displaces and later installs over the conquered Terminus was not some Kalganian native acquiring hawkish tendencies, but one of many Empire Generals-turned-Warlords of various regions:"Meanwhile, the old Empire has fallen quite to pieces, with the various splinters under the shifting, incoherent control of successions of warlords, whose ephemeral military rule waxes and wanes chaotically. It is to these warlords that certain elements of the Independent Traders look for help against the Foundation. However, none of these warlords are at all anxious to tangle with a Foundation known to have defeated the Empire singlehanded and known to be invincible by the established laws of psychohistory. There is only 'The Mule." ... As the story opens, he has just captured the planet of Kalgan without a fight, though its former warlord was known to be a capable warrior, entirely ungiven to surrender." And Bail Channis is a military man, though he does not wear his uniform while on his expedition with Hans Pritcher.Other details could flow from the other approved Foundation books by others; perhaps some details, especially regarding Linge Chen, and other background characters drawn from Foundation and Chaos by Greg Bear, could be incorporated into The Psychohistorians segment, or slight wear and tear, missing ceiling portions, litter in the streets not picked up, as indicated in Forward the Foundation, despite the still-otherwise gleaming planet-city of Trantor. Or in giving a history leading up to The Mule (in a short opening narrative admittedly not in the book) brief mention (and glimpse scenes) of the Fall of Trantor as conquered by Gilmer and the preservation of the Imperial Library by the students (omitting all mention of the Second Foundation however), as drawn from Harry Turtledove's "Trantor Falls" from Foundation's Friends.It might also not hurt (though it is not clear what effect it would have on the series, beyond what Hari Seldon's image is saying during the Mule crisis) to have some idea what the Seldon crisis for that time would have been if there were no Mule. Perhaps the Empire-General-turned-Warlord of Kalgan hopes, if he cannot destroy or conquer the Foundation, at least "make off" with its Traders or a signNow percentage of them, and perhaps through them some of their technology that they sell as well. (Originally he hoped to provoke a war between the two foundations, but scanning the furthest regions of the galaxy in vain searching for it he concludes that it is of no account and no help.) So he then turns to creating a civil war within the Foundation - perhaps he can set the Traders at war with the corrupt oligarchy that rules them from Terminus, and many Trader worlds would have joined him, but the few that didn't along with a surprising strength from the Terminus Oligarchy side who have at their beck and call the entire Foundation technology - which the Traders understand far too little of to be of much benefit to the Kalgan Warlord - and so he fails and better relations (something kind of like a union) forms among the Traders to strengthen their bargaining position against the Oligarchy who then begin dealing with them more honestly. But for those third and fourth Seldon crises the end has the Seldon image explaining the Crisis, but as the camera pans around (during the closing credits) no one is in the room.A carefully worked out chronology, specifying how many years into the Foundation era each story is, would be easy to give at the outset of each segment or after any major duration within a segment.Now, can anyone tell me that all of this would not add up to "utterly cool" if only it could be so produced?

A article from hank Wallace gives a pretty thorough explanation.There’s a lot of trade talk about pickups. This one’s “hot”, that one’s “mellow”, the other one’s “smooth”. But how do pickups work? What makes them go?At the core of magnetic pickups are magnets, of course. You have seen pickups on display in a music shop where you can see the thin copper wire coiled around the pickup body. So we have magnets and a coil of wire as the main components of a pickup.The basic science behind pickup function is Faraday’s Law of Induction. It states that a changing magnetic field causes an electric field to be set up in a nearby wire, causing a current to flow if the wire is part of a closed circuit (a loop of wire for example).Perhaps in science class you connected a meter across a coil of wire, then swiped a magnet near the coil. The changing magnetic field caused the meter’s needle to jump. Energy of motion (your moving hand) was converted to electricity through the motion of the magnetic field. That’s how electric generators work.The picture shows a very simplified view of the pickup end of a guitar, including the pickup, bridge piece and string. The red lines represent the magnetic field of the pickup (a single coil pickup for discussion). The magnetic pole pieces you see on your pickups actually extend all the way through the pickup’s wire coil.Since Faraday’s Law tells us we need a changing magnetic field to make an electric current, how does the magnetic field from the static permanent magnets change? That’s where the string comes into play.See, the string is made of nickel and steel (iron+carbon), materials that are ferromagnetic. That is, a magnet attracts guitar strings. When this ferromagnetic metal vibrates in the magnetic field of the pickup, that disturbs the red field lines which also cross through the coil (not shown). That changing magnetic field makes a current flow that tracks the vibration of the string, and we have a working pickup!Vibrating StringsI’ll get back to pickups in a moment, but let’s look at the physics of a vibrating string, which is very interesting and easy to grasp. Your understanding of how your instrument works will make this crystal clear. Understanding a vibrating string helps us understand how the pickups sound.The picture shows three situations. The top diagram shows the first harmonic of the string’s pitch, called the fundamental. This is the note you hear when you pluck an open string. (The extents of the oval indicate the movement of the string as it vibrates.)The diagram labeled “2nd” is the second harmonic. The string can only vibrate at whole number multiples of the fundamental pitch (1x, 2x, 3x, etc.). You cannot see it very well in a vibrating guitar string, but there are fat and skinny spots. The point of minimum movement is called a node. The point of maximum movement is called an antinode. The number of the harmonic is found by counting the number of antinodes on the string.The diagram labeled “3rd” shows the third harmonic, which has three antinodes.Important: The string does not move at a node. That means, once you get the string vibrating at the second harmonic, you can touch the string exactly at the node and it keeps on making sound!Now you can easily create and listen to these harmonics on your instrument. Plucking any open string voices the fundamental. Put your finger lightly on the string at the twelfth fret and pluck the string. The higher pitch is the second harmonic. The node is right over the twelfth fret. Pluck the harmonic and touch the pick to the string at the twelfth fret. Notice that the tone keeps ringing. The node point on the string is not moving!The third harmonic is had by plucking the string and muting it at the seventh fret. This is another node.Back to PickupsLet’s see how the nodes interact with the pickup’s operation. The next picture shows the same three harmonics with the pickup positioned midway along the string (not realistic, but good for illustration).Remember that the pickup only detects string vibration when the string is vibrating near the pickup. (OK, duh.) In the top and bottom diagrams, the fundamental and third harmonic, the string is moving a lot in the pickup’s vicinity. But for the second harmonic, the pickup is situated over a node, meaning that the pickup does not hear the second harmonic. How interesting!Now this diagram is vastly oversimplified. In real life, when you pluck a string it vibrates in the fundamental, second harmonic, third, fourth, etc., all a the same time. But the pickup ignores the tones that have a node where the pickup is positioned. This has the effect of filtering the tones on the string.Look at the diagrams and you can see (with a little thought) what happens to higher harmonics. For example, every odd harmonic will have an antinode near the pickup and will make it to the guitar amp. But every even harmonic will have a node near the pickup and will be silent. So this pickup positioning filters out all the even harmonics.When there are two pickups being used, the situation gets even more interesting. Pickups are usually mounted close to the bridge, so each one is seeing the fundamental in some measure. That is, the string is moving either toward or away from all the pickups at the same time. This causes the signals coming out of the pickups to add together.For the seventh harmonic, we see that the pickup on the right is at an antinode, getting a lot of signal, and the pickup on the left is at a node, putting out little signal. This harmonic comes across strong.For the tenth harmonic, we see that the pickup on the right has the string moving away from it when the other pickup has the string moving toward it. This causes the signals from the pickups to cancel, so this harmonic is reduced in volume.You can see that the distance between the pickups affects which harmonics will add and which will cancel. That’s why pickup positioning is so important if you are trying to mimic the sound of a vintage instrument.As stated, a string produces loads of harmonics when it is plucked, so this two pickup system does a lot of filtering. This is the source of the Stratocaster®sound had with the 5-way switching (more detail below). The filtering occurs in humbuckers, too, but at a much higher frequency because the two pickup coils are much closer together. That’s partly why humbuckers have a more mellow sound with less high end than single coil pickups — the higher harmonics are canceling.Adding another layer of complexity, there are actually two of these filters on each string, one determined by the bridge-pickup distance, and the other determined by the distance from the pickup to the fretted position on the string, which of course moves constantly as you play. For every string, at every fret, there is a pair of filters that determine with the pickups how the string sounds.The picture shows a string vibrating over a pickup, viewed end-on. It’s even more interesting because when you pluck a string, the string does not vibrate in a plane (red line), but in any number of planes, or circles (green), or ellipses (white). In fact, the ellipses can even rotate around their center as the note decays. This means that the harmonics you hear also depends on how you pick the string, but you knew that already.When we add to that all the variations on pickup construction (magnet type, magnet position, magnet strength, wire size, number of turns on the coil, pickup position in the guitar), it’s apparent that billions of sounds are available.How do Humbuckers Work?A common question from guitarists is, “How do humbucking pickups work?” The design of humbuckers is a clever innovation from decades past. The humbucking pickup passes the vibration of the guitar string while attenuating the hum and noise present all around the guitar, from power lines and other electronic devices. How is this possible?The humbucker uses two coils of wire to pick up the guitar strings’ vibrations. However, the magnets are installed in the two coils in opposite polarity, such that they produce signals that are effectively out of phase in each coil. If the coils are connected correctly, signals from the strings add together from the two single coils. But electromagnetic fields hitting both single coils from external sources, like lighting fixtures, cancel out because of the way the coils are interconnected. Thus, the good guitar signal is double the strength that would be had with a single coil alone, and the interference is cancelled to a great extent in the process.What’s the Secret Behind 5-Way Pickup Switching?I remember when I got my first Stratocaster®. A friend told me how some guitarists I admired set the 3-way switch between the first two or last two positions to get what they called an “out of phase” sound. I tried it and fell in love with that sound. I even made one T-shirt that said “I Found the Sound”, using the Fender “F” (don’t tell the lawyers, but I cut the “F” out of some iron-on material myself — I must have been 16). None of my buddies at school understood, and I have long outgrown that shirt, but the sound remains.What produces that sound? The 3-way switch had what engineers called “make before break” operation. That means that when switching between two pickups, it connected them both together for an instant before switching to only the next pickup. This avoided an annoying break in the sound while switching pickups. I suppose that Leo Fender did not want to be receiving tech support calls on those new guitars, especially since the Asian tech support call center had not yet been invented! (Thank you Michael Dell. NOT!)When two pickups are connected together, as discussed above, there is a filtering of the signals that is a function of the distance between the pickups. The 3-way switch on a Les Paul guitar has much the same effect in the middle position, but the sound is different because it is combining two humbuckers which are spaced farther apart. Note that the pickups are NOT connected out of phase. If you rewire a guitar for that operation you will find the bass response greatly diminished. It’s just the physics of filtering that creates that signature sound.We have 5-way switches today and they make getting that sound easy. The switch manufacturers simply added a couple more detents to the original 3-way switches. The wiring is the same!What about Magnet Type?There are many types of magnets in common use. Ceramic magnets are inexpensive, but brittle and not too strong magnetically. These are commonly used in crafts and as refrigerator door magnets.Other common types are:aluminum nickel cobalt [AlNiCo] (inexpensive)samarium cobalt (strong but expensive)neodymium boron iron (strongest and expensive)There are some trade offs involved in pickup design. First, a stronger magnet means that fewer turns of wire are needed for a certain audio output. That means that the pickup can be smaller. If the pickup is made in some standard size, a stronger magnet produces more audio output.However, the stronger magnet types are much more expensive. That’s why most pickups use less expensive AlNiCo magnets.Also, stronger magnets are not the cure-all for electric guitar. Since the guitar strings are ferromagnetic and are attracted to the magnets, the pickups affect the vibrations of the strings, which is bad since the pickups are only there to sense the vibrations, not change them. To get a feel for this, adjust a guitar’s neck pickup until the pole pieces are very near (It might seem smart to choose the strongest magnet, neodymium boron iron, and make a pickup so hot that you could plug a 100 watt light bulb into your Les Paul. But that magnet will either affect the strings adversely, or you’d have to make it so small that its magnetic field would be too concentrated. Weaker magnets necessarily must be larger in diameter to be usable, and they produce a broader field that is tolerant of the strings’ movement while being plucked and bent.

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