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FAQs
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How is it possible that your car keys unlock only your car and not all the others? Is it theoretically possible that your key co
How is it possible that your car keys unlock only your car and not all the others? Is it theoretically possible that your key could unlock a second car somewhere on the world? With a digital key fob, you can use a number of combinations that effectively means your key fob will never open any other car. Each fob carries a serial number; if that serial number is, say, in the tens of billions, well, no car company has ever made seventy billion cars.With a physical key, there are only so many different combinations of high and low points in the key. The lock has a set number of tumblers, usually about five or so, and each tumbler can be set to one of a specific number of different heights.The physical locks Honda uses have a total of 3,500 possible combinations. That...
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What do you do everyday to promote your website?
Great question!There are several ways that you can promote your website. Here are a few of my favorites:Schedule social media posts (blog articles, quotes, bit size content from your website) via Hootsuite to post on multiple channels such to get maximum signNow.Channels such as Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, TwitterLook up hashtags specific to your business on Twitter and engage with others or even better yet provide them a free resource that you’re giving away (preferably one that leads back to your site).Engage with people on Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, and Instagram by asking questions, answering questions, and starting new conversations.Pin new content on Pinterest a couple of times a week.There are many ways you can promote your website and it’s hard to not to get overwhelmed–so pick a few and give them a try. Once you’re ready you can always do more to promote.
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What are the best features of Microsoft Office 365?
Here’s a breakdown of some awesome Features Office 3651. Work Smarter, EverywhereAfter buying Office 365, you also gain access to its accompanying mobile apps and browser apps. This allows you to access their cloud service from any up to date web browser on your desktop or mobile device. Even better yet, you don’t have to install Office software on your computer to do this.The mobile app allows you to access all of your Office 365 subscriptions and Office products right from your smartphone or tablet; this includes Word, Excel, Powerpoint, Onenote, and more. Cut the cord and stop working on your PC only — download the Microsoft Office 365 mobile app to stay productive, even while on the go.2. Enjoy 50 GB of StorageEach Office 365 user receives a whopping 50 GB of storage with Exchange Online; this can be used to save emails, calendar events, task lists, meeting notes, contact information, and email attachments.You can save some more space in your mailbox by utilizing the OneDrive cloud storage feature to share attachments.Your OneDrive storage is also synced to your device, enabling you to work offline on files. As soon as you reconnect to the web, the newest versions of your documents will be automatically uploaded to your cloud storage. The new versions of your documents will also be sent to any other connected device, including your phone or tablet — nifty!3. Edit Documents with Real-Time Co-AuthoringCollaborate online and see changes your team makes to shared documents within your Office apps as they happen with the real-time co-authoring feature in Word. Save your file to OneDrive cloud storage or SharePoint so your team can access the document and make any necessary edits or updates. You can also share it directly from Word by utilizing a handily integrated sidebar. As the publisher and access-giver, you can edit accessibility settings at any time.With the improved version control that was rolled out with Office 2016 co-authoring, you can see which changes to the document were made by which contributor and when the update was made. You can also easily revert back to a previous version of the file whenever you need to.4. Connect with Co-WorkersYou may not have known this, but Office apps include a Skype in-app integration. You can use this feature to instant message your teammates, share your screen during meetings and have audio or visual conversations — without even exiting the Office apps you’re working in. You can continue Skype conversations even after you close your office apps via your desktop or mobile version of Skype. The best part? Your team will receive unlimited Skype minutes.Source: Microsoft5. Send Links, Not FilesIt’s time to move away from email attachments. It’s never been easier to share documents for co-authoring!Simply upload your file to Office 365’s cloud storage. Then, write your email via Outlook or the Outlook web app. Rather than attaching your document to the email, you can insert a link to the file on your cloud. Outlook will automatically allow email recipients to edit the document you wish to share. You can always change permissions on any document at your convenience.6. Convert OneNote Items into Outlook Calendar EventsEasily configure OneNote items to tasks within your Outlook calendar. You can also assign tasks to colleagues, complete with follow-up reminders and concise due dates. You can also transfer meeting notes taken in OneNote via email to your teammates, and add important details (date, location, and attendees) to their respective meeting.7. Use Your Mouse as a Laser Pointer during PowerPoint PresentationsWith only a simple keyboard shortcut (Ctrl + P), your mouse can be used as a laser pointer during your PowerPoint presentations. You can also use the “presenter mode” commands while using this feature.The laser pointer tool has been a nifty trick within older versions of the office apps for years; however, it was only recently integrated for touch-screen devices. All you have to do is hold down on your device’s screen, and the laser pointer will appear.8. Create a Power Map Using ExcelTurn data into a 3-D interactive map with Power Map, one of the many Power BI-enhanced data visualization features that Excel has to offer. It comes with three different filters: List, Range, or Advanced. The Power Map will help you not only convey your data more effectively, but also support your claims by creating a tangible story from the numbers.
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Why are railguns often portrayed as a better way to intercept maneuvering hypersonic threats than interceptor missiles?
There are several factors that go into this, there are pros and cons to both systems, to a military planner the pros of the rail gun out weigh it’s cons. Only time will prove if they are right or not but I will try to explain.Defensive Vs Offensive load, There is only limited launcher space on any ship regardless of how many missiles it has in storage. So lets say you have 20 launchers in your ship, vertical launchers are becoming the norm. Even though you have 100 more missiles of whatever mix you want in the hold, your 20 launchers have what they have in them and it will take time to swap them out. (Hopefully some USN personnel on here who have served on a DDG or similar can let us know how long) I’m guessing at least an hour. Some missiles can be dual use like an anti-missile-Missile can be used in the anti aircraft role, but a Tomahawk or any land attack missile simply cannot. Every tube you have filled with a missile to perform your mission is a missile you cannot use for defense, every missile you have loaded for defense, can’t be used for your mission.The rail gun uses a solid mass of metal, you can use it to devastating effect against air, sea, or land targets without worrying about carrying different loads. I imagine a flechette round would be used against missiles and aircraft, but it doesn’t matter, you can switch ammo types in seconds.With railguns as point defense, you are free to have the majority of your missile tubes loaded for the mission and only a minimum with defensive (AA or AM) missiles.Immunity to counter measures: The railgun is a line of sight weapon, if you can see it, you can hit it. Once radar contact is made and the gun aligned, powerful optics will be used to line up the final shot. at 2.4 kilometers+ a second- nothing can really affect or stop the projectile. If the shot is lined up properly, the target is dead, no amount of chaff flares or ecm can do anything once the projectile leaves the rail.Cost. The Major cost of the system is in the gun and the guidance and aiming systems require only maintenance when bought, The Projectile is just a hunk of machined metal, I imagine the ship’s machine shop will have the ability to fabricate more in an emergency. No propellant needed (more on that later) A missile has to have a warhead, a motor, navigation and avionics which is all one time use, the launching and guidance on the ship are not cheap either so while the up front cost of the railgun will be higher, that changes quickly after a few shots.Safety. That warhead and rocket/jet fuel in a missile infinitely more deadly to you before you launch as it is to the enemy. Anything that touches off that magazine (accidents, malfunctions, enemy fire) will likely be catastrophic. The inert projectiles of a railgun are immune to that. The rail-gun itself if charged might pose a small danger if damaged while charged, but that will be like a transformer box blowing up outside during a storm (happened to me when I was a kid during a hurricane) While it was loud and scary to 11 year old me 20 meters from my house, it did zero damage to the house and didn’t even knockdown the telephone pole it was on, Had that been a modern AA-or AM missile 20 meters away, I and my house would likely not be here today.Close in defense: You can use the rail gun up to the point an enemy missile hits your ship. A vertically launched missile needs to clear the ship arc towards its target and fly towards it. This all takes time meaning that depending on the speed of the incoming missile, you have a radius where if you haven’t launched yet, there is nothing you can do. So let’s say you have a ship with a rail gun and one with only missiles. Both are engaged by missiles with a 4 second flight time. It takes 2 seconds to identify and track the target and come up with a firing solution(I have no idea how long it really takes but I’m pretty sure the human reaction time to authorize the launch of a $500,000 missile is more than that). the 2 seconds remaining are not enough, the missile will just be clear of it’s tubes and arcing when your ship gets hit. The rail gun ship still has time to get one or two shots off, Even if it hits the Missile right outside the hull, that is preferable to having it go off INSIDE your hull.Like I said before, having the rail gun doesn’t stop you from carrying defensive missiles for BVR/Over the Horizon, engagements.
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What is the role of each aircraft in Indian Air Force?
TL,DR: The Fighter Jet fleet of the IAF can be divided into the following categories:Air Superiority Aircraft : Sukhoi 30 MKI, Dassault Rafale*Multi Role Aircraft : MiG 21 Bison, MiG 29 UPG, Dassault Mirage 2000-5 Mk 2, HAL Tejas Mk IDeep Penetration Strike Aircraft : Jaguar DARIN IIIGround Attack Aircraft : MiG 27The Transport Aircraft fleet of the IAF consists of:Heavy Air Lift Cargo Aircraft : IL 76, C 17 Globemaster IIIStrategic Air Lift Aircraft : C 130J Super HerculesMid Air Refuellers: IL 78 MKIMedium Cargo Aircraft : Antonov An-32Light Transport Aircraft : Dornier Do 228Communication and Training Aircraft: Hawker Siddeley HS 748The Rotary wing of the IAF comprises of :Heavy Airlift Helicopter : Mil Mi-26Medium Airlift Helicopter : Mil Mi-17 v5Advanced Light Helicopter : HAL DhruvAttack Helicopter : Mil Mi-35, HAL LCH*, HAL RudraLight Utility Helicopter : HAL Cheetah, ChetakThe Airborne Early Warning & Control aircraft of the IAF consists of :360 Degree coverage aircraft : Phalcon AEW&C240 Degree coverage aircraft : DRDO NetraThe Trainer Aircraft of the IAF consists of :Basic Trainer Aircraft : Pilatus PC-7 Mk II, HAL HTT 40*Intermediate Jet Trainer : HAL Kiran Mk IIAdvanced Jet Trainer : BAE Hawk Mk 132Caveat: Aircrafts marked with * are in advanced stages of Induction with the IAFA wonderful question, I hope I can do justice to it and the Indian Air Force with my answer.The Fighter jet fleet of the Indian Air Force (IAF) is divided into the following categories:Air Superiority Aircraft : Undoubtedly India owns one of the finest jets in Asia at the moment. The Sukhoi 30 MKI is a wonderful plane with avionics integrated into the air frame from 5 countries. The role of this plane is to gain superiority by driving out enemy jets in an area dominated by an adversary so IAF may carry out its secondary tasks like insertion of the Garuda Commandos to attack air bases of the adversary. The Su 30 MKI are slated to be modified with new AESA radars which will increase its enemy tracking and engaging capabilities manifold. Some Su 30 MKI are being modified to carry the supersonic BrahMos Air to Surface Cruise Missiles. India has identified the Su 30 MKI as a platform to carry Nuclear Weapons should there be a need to fire one.Sukhoi 30 MKI of the IAFMulti Role Aircraft : When the IAF did induct the MiG 21, it was intended to be used an interceptor, to strike kills against other aircraft and strategic air borne assets of the enemies like the Bombers, Para-trooping transport aircraft and much later AWACK’s and Air to Air refuellers. However, with the Bison update the planes has now become a Multi Role Aircraft capable of performing a plethora of operations.MiG 21 Bison of the IAFLikewise, the MiG 29 was inducted to fill the role of an Air Dominance aircraft, operating much before the IAF bought the Su 30 MKI’s. With the UPG update including a bigger fuel tank, extended range, all weather operations, improved radar and sensor suite, the MiG 29 UPG is a redefined aircraft to the core.The MiG 29 of the IAF being modified to the UPG Standard in Russia. Notice the curved bump behind the cockpit which houses a fuel tank to increase the jet’s rangeMirage 2000H, arguably the best fighter jet to have flown with the IAF before the Su 30 MKI’s performs a similar role. The Mirage 2000H has been upgraded to the 2000–5 Mk 2 standard with new engines, Radar along with a better armament package. The Mirages along with the Su 30 MKI and the yet to be inducted Dassault Rafale comprise the core of the Airborne Nuclear Strike Platforms of India.Mirage 2000–5 Mk 2 of the IAF. Please note this snap is of the upgraded Mirage 2000 Trainer AircraftThe Tejas is expected to fill in the void left by the retirement of the MiG 21 Bison and its variants in the years to come. The aircraft is leagues ahead of the aircraft it is slated to replace, with the more powerful Tejas Mk 1A standard aircrafts featuring an AESA Radar, Elta’s ELM-2052, Air to Air Refueling pod, Self Protection Jammers (SPJ) and the like.Tejas Mk I inducted to the IAF this yearDeep Penetration Strike Aircraft : A truly majestic jet which has been the serving the IAF for long. The Jaguar are tasked to enter the enemy airspace undetected and attack vital enemy installations like Forward landing Air bases, RADAR installations, refueling stations and the like. The HAL is upgrading the planes to the DARIN III Standard, which includes Helmet Mounted Displays, Glass Cockpit, GPS Navigators, new mission computers, avionics like Auto Pilot, Air to Air Refueling and a new plant. The negotiations are on with Honeywell to supply the new engines which are lighter, more fuel efficient and produce more thrust.Jaguar Darin II of the IAFGround Attack Aircraft: The MiG 27 is a swing wing aircraft tasked to supplement the ground infantry units with aerial support. The R 29 powerplant issues have never let the IAF use these planes to its full potential with many planes and pilots lost in crashes. These planes are slated to be put out of service at the earliest.MiG 27 of the IAFIn the past, the IAF used to fly the dedicated Reconnaissance aircraft like the MiG 25 Foxbat and bomber aircraft like the English Electric Canberra. These planes have had a stellar contribution in the wars India has fought since it’s independence.EDIT 1 : As suggested by Rejish Menon I am going to expand the scope of my answer to beyond the fighter jet fleet of the IAF.The Transport Aircraft Fleet of the IAF:Heavy Air Lift Cargo Aircraft : Ilyushin IL 76 forms the backbone of the IAF Heavy Transport Fleet having provided yeoman service for more than 30 years. There has been news that India is going to upgrade the 17 IL 76 it has to the IL 476 standard that will see the life of the aircraft extended by 15 years having new avionics, more powerful yet fuel efficient engines and obviously a better payload carrying capacity. The Boeing C 17 Globemaster III is rather a recent acquisition of the IAF having more payload carrying capacity than the older IL 76. Another feature of the C 17 is that it can land on unprepared runways and requires a shorter landing and takeoff distance due to features like Thrust Reversal and better engines. India wanted to buy more of the C 17’s, but the production line was stopped in 2015, hence India would have to settle for second hand C 17’s from friendly countries if it wants to increase its fleet from the present 10 aircraft.IL 76 of the IAFC 17 Globemaster III in service with the IAFStrategic Airlift Aircraft : The Lockheed Martin C 130 J Super Hercules is a monster of an aircraft. It is very versatile and is built to sustain adversity. It also has features like Thrust reversal enabling it land on the unprepared runways of India’s ALG’s in the North East. The IAF has used the C130 J’s in situations where it would have been very difficult to operate the older An-32 aircraft namely in the Uttarakhand Flood crisis and the Nepal Earthquake.C 130 J Super Hercules of the IAFMid Air Refuellers : IL 78 MKI is the Air to Air refuelling platform of the IAF, extending the range of its fighters jet so that they may be able to strike deep in the enemy territory if the need be. The IAF has 7 of these aircraft in its inventory.IL 78 MKI of the IAF refueling two Su 30 MKI’s of the IAFMedium Cargo Aircraft : Antonov An-32 has been the linchpin of the IAF for quite some time now providing medium cargo lift capabilities. The aircraft is also used to para-trooping and bombing missions. The IAF has over 100 of these planes in number and all of them are being upgraded to achieve a longer life with new engines, navigation system and avionics.Upgraded An-32 of the IAFLight Transport Aircraft : I think the name is self explanatory, Dornier Do 228 is used as a light transport aircraft to ferry personnel around. Its is also used to search and rescue operations in the IAF and the IN.Do 228 in service with the IAFThe Rotary wing of the IAF consists of :Heavy Airlift Helicopter : Mil Mi-26 is the largest helicopter build to date. The IAF has bought 4 of them, while 1 has crashed. The remaining 3 helo’s are at the end of their service life and are in need of an immediate upgrade. These helicopters are capable of carrying a payload equal to that of a c 130 J Super Hercules. There has been little clarity as to what the IAF plans to do with these Helo’s. Slated to be replaced with the CH 47F Chinook’s when they enter service. The Chinook’s though not capable of lifting very heavy payloads like the Mi-26, will give the IAF a boost in the Strategic Airlifting operations owing to its high degree of maneuverability and lower Radar Signature.The largest helicopter ever built: Mil Mi-26 operating in the mountainous regions of IndiaMedium Airlift Helicopter : Mil Mi-17 v5 is the mainstay of the IAF’s Helicopter fleet and is used for a plethora of missions replacing the older Mil Mi-8 helicopters in service with the IAF. The helicopter is extensively used in Search And Rescue (SAR) and counter insurgency operations as well.The latest Mi-17 v5 of the IAFLight Helicopters : The HAL Dhruv, Cheetah and Chetak form an important wing of the IAF. HAL Dhruv, the indigenous helicopter supplements the larger Mi 17’s in its task. The SARANG Helicopter display team also consists of the Dhruv’s. The other two are used for training, rescue and light transport roles including in the high altitude regions. Eventually to be replaced by the Kamov ka-226 and the HAL LUH.HAL Dhruv’s operating in the Nepal earthquake relief operations. Please appreciate the skills of our brave airmen who have landed the Helicopter in such an adverse terrain for an Evacuation operationDhruv’s of the SARANG helicopter Display TeamHAL Chetak of the IAFThe soon to be inducted HAL Light Utility Helicopter (LUH) during its first flight in 2016Attack Helicopter : The Mil Mi-35 was the first Attack helicopter to be inducted into the IAF capable of acting as both as a transport and a gunship helo capabling of inserting the Garuda commandos and providing them over head cover. The disadvantage is that it is not built to operate in the High Altitude regions and hence was not used in the Kargil war where the IAF had to do with the armored and weaponised version of the Mi 17. The Mi 17’s were sitting ducks to the Pakistani Manpads. The Mil Mi-35 are to be replaced by the AH-64 E Apache Attack Helicopters. Further, India has transferred four Mi-35 to its allies, The Afghan Air Force in 2016 to assist the Afghan Security Forces.Hence, a requirement was drawn to build attack helo which would operate in the high altitude regions of India. Thus, the HAL Light Combat helicopter (LCH) was born. It is to be inducted into the IAF in a couple of year’s time. The HAL Rudra is the weaponised version of the HAL Dhruv.The LCH and the Rudra are used for anti-tank operations, close air support to ground forces as a battlefield scout and possibly for anti-surface vessel warfare in the future.The Mil Mi-35. Notice the Low Capacity transport compartment behind the cockpitHAL Light Combat Helicopter (LCH) during it’s High Altitude trialsThe third prototype of the HAL LCHHAL Rudra with it’s weapon complementEDIT 2: The “Eyes in the skies” of the IAF. The Airborne Early Warning and Control aircraft of the IAF consist of :Phalcon AEW&C : One of the most advanced AEW&C in the world now, it consists of an the EL/W-2090 AESA (Active Electronic Scanned Array) Radar mounted on a Russian A-50 platform which is based on the IL 76 design. With a coverage on 360 degrees and a range of 500 Km these radars can track upto 100 targets simultaneously. These operations are supported by the onboard ECM (Electronic Counter Measures) and ECCM (Electronic Counter Counter Measures) systems for electronic warfare. The IAF currently three of these aircraft with two more placed on order.A Phalcon AEW&C flying in formation with three MiG 29’s of the IAFDRDO Netra : It is India’s first indigenous Air borne radar to join the IAF ( Not to be confused with the quadrotor developed by DRDO). Not as potent as its elder brother, the Phalcon these aircraft are aimed to supplement the bigger aircraft as well as giving the Indian scientists an opportunity at making an indigenous AESA Radar. The aircraft has a 240 degree coverage area with a range of 300 Km. Even with the reduced operational parameters formidable gains in detection ranges are can be achieved across the Himalayan Ranges on the northern borders where Radar Units can’t be located due to the inhospitable terrain.The indigenous DRDO NetraEDIT 3: Introducing the Trainer Aircraft Fleet of the IAF,The Trainer Aircraft Fleet of the IAF consists of:Basic Trainer Aircraft : The IAF currently uses the Pilatus PC-7 Mk II as its Basic Trainer Aircraft (BTA). The PC-7 replaced the indegenous HAL HPT-32 Deepak aircraft in service with the IAF after there were widespread concern about the flight safety of the Deepak’s. The IAF plans to augment its BTA fleet with the addition of the indegenous HAL HTT-40 BTA which had its inaugral flight last month.Pilatus PC-7 Mk II of the IAFThe first flight of the HAL HTT-40 BTAIntermediate Jet Trainer : The IAF uses the indegenous Kiran Mk II aircraft as the Intermediate Jet Trainer (IJT). In the early 1980’s, the IAF used to deploy the Polish Iskra and the HAL kiran Mk I airacraft for the Intermediate and Advanced Jet Training sorties. However, the Iskra’s were susceptible to stall while going on for more than one Spin. Hence, the IAF used the Kiran aircraft for the spin sorties while the Iskra was reserved for the applied combat sorties. The Iskra’s had been decommisioned long ago with the BAE Hawk Mk 132 filling its shoes. The Kiran Mk II version continues to fly strong. The HAL HJT-36 Sitara project was supposed to replace the Kiran aicraft but there are still too many issues to be solved in the Sitara, with the IAF loosing interest in the peoject as time passes by.A Kiran aircraft, formerly a part of the IAF’s Surya Kiran Aerobatic Team (SKAT)The aerobatic team of the IAF and IN, the Surya Kiran and the Sagar Pawan were associated with the Kiran aircraft. The Sagar Pawan team still flies on the Kiran while the Surya Kiran Aerobatic Team (SKAT) are flying the Hawk AJT nowadays. This was done as the IAF had to disbandon the team as there was shortage of the Kiran for Intermediate Jet Training purposes. The Sitara was supposed to replace the Kiran in the SKAT as well but given its spin and stall issues, it was decided to keep the team's legacy alive by using the Hawk Mk 132 AJT.The SKAT in a nine aircraft formation with the Kiran aircraftHAL HJT-36 Sitara IJT, an aircraft beset by design deficienciesAdvanced jet Trainer : The BAE Hawk Mk 132 is used to impart advanced combat and applied weapons training to the cadets. The Advanced Jet Trainer (AJT) stage was added in order to bridge the lacunae between handling the Supersonic aircraft in service with the IAF and the subsonic aircraft on which the cadets are being trained. This training aimed to reduce the cases of Pilot Error as the Hawk aircraft is capable of manoeuvring in Transonic and Supersonic speeds (only in cases where the aircraft is going in a dive, else the aircraft can go Transonic in level flight). HAL has also signed an MoU with BAE Systems to develop a weaponised version of the Hawk, to serve as a Close Combat Support aircraft having limited Air to Air capabilities as well.The BAE Hawk Mk 132 AJT in service with the IAFThe IAF has resurrected the SKAT in 2015 with six of these aircraft in its inventory, replacing the Kiran Mk II Trainer Aircraft formerly in service with the team.A BAE Hawk Mk 132 aircaft with the IAF’s Surya Kiran Aerobatic Team's new liveryIn addition to the three stage aircraft training imparted by the IAF, it also conducts aircraft specific training for its pilots. The IAF has Units like the MiG Operational Flying Training Unit or MOFTU, which imparts training to the young pilots on the MiG 21 aircaft which has a reputation of very high speed landings and take-off. This is done to aclimatize the pilots to the unforgiving supersonic MiG’s of the IAF.I would fail in my duty if I don't mention our courageous Pilots and tireless Technicians who keep our rotors churning, jets running all year long. These machines are nothing without the men behind them.JAI HIND !
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Is wave-particle duality an illusion?
"Illusion" is an interesting choice of words. To acquire the kind of understanding I think you're after, let's back up a bit and see if we can excavate the foundation of this question. Let me start with a quote. “The voyage of discovery lies not in seeking new horizons, but in seeing with new eyes.” ~ Marcel Proust An examination of the double-slit experiment will give us a good introduction to the mystery you have singled out. But to make that examination worthwhile, we need to make sure that we are familiar with an important effect known as interference. [i]Interference applies universally to all interacting waves. A water wave, for instance, can be described as a disturbance in the shape of the water’s surface. This disturbance produces regions where the water level is higher and regions where it is lower than the undisturbed value. The highest part of each ripple is called a peak and the lowest part is called a trough. Typically waves involve periodic succession, peak followed by trough followed by peak and so on. In general, we can define a wavelength as the distance between identical parts of adjacent waves. Measurements from peak to peak, or trough to trough, for example, give the same value for wavelength.Figure 1 Peaks and troughs of wavesWhen waves interact in a medium, they interfere. For example, if we drop two rocks into spatially separated parts of a pond, their waves will interfere when they cross. (Figure 2) When a peak of one wave and a peak of another wave come together, the height of the water rises to a height equal to the sum of the two peaks. Similarly, when a trough of one wave and a trough of another wave cross, the depression of the water's surface dips to the sum of the two depressions. And when a peak of one wave crosses with a trough of another, the (at least partially) cancel each other out. The peak of one wave contributes a positive displacement while the trough of the other wave contributes a negative displacement. If the two waves have equal magnitude, then there will be perfect cancelation and the water's surface will be flat, just as it was before any wave existed.Figure 12-2 Constructive and destructive interference Keeping these rules of interference in mind, let’s turn our attention to light. If we take a laser emitting a single wavelength—a single color, and shine it on a screen that has a slit etched into it (Figure 3), what image should we expect to see on the wall behind the screen? [ii] Classically speaking, we would expect to see a stripe of light on the wall. (Classically means according to our four-dimensional intuition, or the rules of Euclidean geometry.) It turns out that this is what we see. In this sense light’s behavior correlates perfectly with our Euclidean intuition.Figure 12-3 Expected single slit projectionWhat image should we expect to see on the wall if we etch a second slit on our screen and cover the first slit with a black piece of tape? Well, our classical intuitions tell us to expect a line of light projected on the wall, just like we did before, except this line of light should be offset from the first. Again, this is exactly what we see when we perform the experiment. So far all of this is straightforward and conceptually trivial. But as it turns out, we are only one step away from a profound mystery. We discover this mystery by removing the piece of tape. To understand the impact of this mystery, ask yourself: What sort of projection do we expect to see on the wall when both slits are open?Classical intuition tells us that we should see two parallel bands of light on the wall (Figure 4).Figure 4 Expected double slit projectionBut this is where our classical training (our Euclidean intuition) lets us down. This is also where classical mechanics breaks down. When we perform this experiment, something completely counterintuitive happens, contradicting our Euclidean intuitions. A distinct interference pattern is projected on the wall (Figure 5).Figure 5 Actual double slit projection The bright and dark bands produced in this double-slit experiment are telltale signs that light propagates as a wave. [iii] Interference patterns are key signatures of waves. The problem is that this wavelike characteristic directly clashes with our observations of light’s particulate behavior. After all, photons are always found in point-like regions rather than spread out like a wave, and individual photons are always found to have very discrete amounts of energy. When measuring a wave, you would expect to find its energy spread out over a region instead of being concentrated in one location. So how are we supposed to make sense of this observation? What is going on?These diametrically opposed properties of light are verified facts. Contradictory as they may seem, they are here to stay. They have forced us to the seemingly paradoxical conclusion that light is both a wave and a particle. But how can this be? How can it be both? Although many scientists have found thewave-particle duality of light to be conceptually vague and schizophrenic, this description has persisted. In fact, after the wave-particle concept was adopted as an accurate description of light, it was extended to describe electrons and, eventually, all of matter. This transition was nothing short of a revolution.Up until 1910, atoms were simplistically viewed as miniature solar systems with the nucleus making up the “central star” and orbiting electrons being “planets”. [iv] The wave-particle duality of light and matter rejected this view and pointed to a signNowly different architecture for atoms. Of course, this conceptual transition did not take hold over night.In 1924, Prince Louis de Broglie found that in addition to their particle like character, [v] electrons also possessed a wavelike character. In 1927, Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer followed this up by firing a beam of electrons at a piece of nickel crystal, which acted as a barrier analogous to the one used in the double-slit experiment. A phosphor screen recorded the resultant pattern of electrons. [vi] When they examined the screen, they observed an interference pattern just like the one produced in the double-slit experiment, showing that even electrons have wavelike properties.These experiments shook the foundation of physics by threatening the structure of classical mechanics and destroying humanity’s intuitive framework of reality. But it didn’t stop there. The next step was to tune the beam of electrons down so that the electron gun fired just a single electron at a time. Similar experiments were later used with lasers wherein individual photons were fired seconds apart from each other. The results were mind-bending.Completely against expectation these experiments also produced interference patterns over time as the collection of electrons (or photons) continued to build (Figure 6).Figure 12-6 Over time individual photons construct an interference patternThese observations only added to the confusion. Waves are supposed to be a collective property—something that has no meaning when applied to separate, particulate ingredients. (A water wave, for example, involves a large number of water molecules.) So how can a single electron, or a single photon, be a wave? Furthermore, wave interference requires a wave from one place to interact with a wave from another place. So how can interference be relevantly applied to a single electron or photon? While we are considering such questions, we should also ask, if a single electron or photon is a wave, then what is it that is “waving”? [vii]To answer these questions, Erwin Schrödinger proposed that the stuff that makes up electrons might be smeared out in space and that this smeared electron essence might be what waves. If this idea was correct then we would expect to find all of the electron’s properties, spread out over a distance, but we never do. Every time we locate an electron, we find all of its mass and all of its charge concentrated in one tiny, point-like region. Max Born came up with a different idea. He suggested that the wave is actually a probability wave. [viii] Einstein tinkered with a similar idea when he hypothesized that these waves were optical observations that refer to time averages rather than instantaneous values. Inserting a probability wave (also called a state vector, or a wave function) as a fundamental aspect of Nature delivers another blow to our common-sense ideas about how things truly operate. It suggests that experiments with identical starting conditions do not necessarily lead to identical results because it claims that you can never predict exactly where an electron will be in a single instant. You can only define a probability that we will find it over here, or over there, at any given moment. Two situations with the same probabilistic starting conditions, say of a single particle, might not produce the same results, because the particle can be anywhere within that probability distribution. From a classical perspective, the discovery that the microscopic universe behaves this way is absolutely baffling. Nevertheless, it is how we have observed Nature to be.This leads us to a rather interesting precipice. It seems that the map we have been using to chart physical reality somehow dissolves when we look closely at it. The rules of four-dimensional geometry simply fail to accurately map Nature when we examine the smallest scales. Nature doesn’t strictly behave as our old Euclidean map dictates. Stumbling upon this discovery forces us to face a vital question. Is Nature ultimately and fundamentally probabilistic in a way that we may never understand, as many modern physicists have chosen to believe; or, is this probabilistic quality a byproduct of our reduced dimensional representation of Nature?After pondering these questions long and hard, some physicists have come to believe that the tapestry of spacetime is analogous to water: that the smooth appearance of space and time is only an approximation that must yield to a more fundamental framework when considering ultramicroscopic scales. As far as I can tell, however, up until now this point has only been entertained abstractly. Geometrically resolving a molecular structure for space might resolve our greatest quantum mechanical mysteries, but as of yet, no one has taken that final step. No one has developed a self-consistent picture from this geometric insight. No one has moved beyond the mathematical suggestion that spacetime is analogous to water, or interpreted the theoretical quanta of space as being physically real. Consequently, a framework that enables conceptualization of what is meant by the “molecules” or “atoms” of spacetime has not been developed.Eight decades of meticulous experiments have confirmed the predictions of quantum mechanics based on this wave function, or probability wave, description with amazing precision. “Yet there is still no agreed-upon way to envision what quantum mechanical probability waves actually are. Whether we should say that an electron’s probability wave is the electron, or that it’s associated with the electron, or that it’s a mathematical device for describing the electron’s motion, or that it’s the embodiment of what we can know about the electron is still debated.” [ix]Although quantum mechanics describes the universe as having an inherently probabilistic character, we don’t experience the effects of this character in our day-to-day lives. Why is this? The answer, according to quantum mechanics, is that we don't see quantum events like a chair being here now and then across the room in the next instant, because the probability of that occurring, although not zero, is absurdly miniscule. But what exactly makes the probability for large things to act, as electrons do, so small? At what scales do such effects become important? And, why should the macroscopic universe be so different from the microscopic universe?As if these newly uncovered characteristics of reality weren’t obscure enough, quantum physicists conceptually fuddle things further by suggesting that without observation things have no reality. They claim that until the position of an electron is actually measured the electron has no definite position. Before it is measured, the position exists only as a probability, and then suddenly, through the act of measuring, the electron miraculously acquires the property of position.Einstein acutely recognized the absurdity of this claim. When approached with this conjecture, he famously quipped, “Do you really believe that the moon is not there unless we are looking at it?” [x] To him everything in the physical world had a reality independent of our observations. Measurements that suggested otherwise were mere reflections of the incompleteness by which we currently map and comprehend physical reality. To many quantum physicists, however, the unobserved Moon’s existence became a matter of probability. To them, a discoverable, complete map of physical reality, with the ability to resolve an underlying determinism, became nothing more than a myth—a romantic dream.The mathematical projection of quantum mechanics can be statistically matched with our four-dimensional observations, but when it comes to a conceptual explanation of those observations, it completely lets us down. Intuitive explanations cannot be gleaned from a framework of physical reality that is assumed to be fundamentally probabilistic. By definition, randomness blurs causality. This vague description of physical reality keeps us from grasping a deeper truth by allowing what should be the most basic of concepts to drip into a realm of nonsense.As an example of the confusion that stems from swallowing the standard quantum mechanical interpretation “guts, feathers, and all,” consider the fact that a probabilistic treatment of quantum mechanics leads us to the conclusion that the double-slit experiment can be explained by assuming that a photon actually takes both paths. We can combine the two probability waves emerging from both slits to statistically determine where a photon will land on a screen. The result mimics an interference pattern.According to this, we can explain interference patterns by assuming that one photon somehow always manages to go through both slits, but is this really what is going on? Does a photon really travel along both paths? Can this count as an explanation if we have no coherent sense of what it means? You might notice that if we were to design our experiment with three slits, then we would have to consider whether or not the photon really travels all three routes. This question can be extended for as many slits as you like, but the fundamental conceptual problem remains the same.In order to solve this mystery, you may suggest that we place detectors in front of the slits to determine if the photons are actually going through both slits, or just one. When we do this, we always find that individual photons pass through one slit or the other—never both. But, when we measure the position of individual photons we no longer get an interference pattern and so the question retains its ambiguity. Some have taken this to mean that the act of observation forces wave properties to collapse into a particle, but how and why this theoretical collapse occurs still lacks explanation.Because probability waves are not directly observable and because photons (and electrons) are always found in one place or another when measured, we might be tempted to think that probability waves might not be real—that they were never really there. If that is true, then how are the interference patterns created? Surely these probability waves exist, but in what sense? What are they referencing? Why is it that whenever we know which path the photon takes, we get a classical image instead of an interference pattern? How does the detection of a photon, or an electron, change its behavior?To date, these questions have yet to be resolved. In fact, more clever experiments designed to solve these questions have only deepened the mystery. For example, let’s perform the double-slit experiment again, but this time let’s place devices in front of the slits, which mark (but do not stop or detect) the photons before they pass through the slits. This marking allows us to examine the photons that strike the screen and subsequently determine which slit they passed through. Thus we only gain knowledge of which path the photon takes after the path has been completed. For some reason, however, when we do this we find that the photons do not build up an interference pattern. They form a classical image (Figure 4).Once again, it seems that “which-path” information inhibits us from probing these ghostly waves. But is it really the fact that we gain the ability to determine which path a photon goes through—independent of when we gain that information—that disrupts the interference pattern? Or does our marking of the photon somehow disrupt its interference potential?To explore this question, we perform what’s known as the quantum eraser experiment. We start with the same set up we just described. Then we place another device between each slit and the screen, which completely removes the mark from the photon. We already know that the marked photons project a classical image. Will an interference pattern reemerge if we remove the effects of this mark—if we lose the ability to extract the which-path information?When we perform this experiment the interference pattern does return (Figure 7). Does this mean that photons somehow choose how to act, based on our knowledge of them? Or does it imply something even stranger—that the photons are always both particles and waves simultaneously? How are we to understand either conclusion?Figure 12-7 An interference pattern Another curiosity of Nature is known as the photoelectric effect. Philipp Lenard first discovered this effect through controlled experiments in 1900. When light shines on a metal surface, it causes electrons to be knocked loose and emitted. Knowing this, Lenard designed an experiment that allowed him to control the frequencyof the incoming light. During the experiment, he increased the frequency of the light—moving from infrared heat and red light to violet and ultraviolet. Greater frequencies caused the emitted electrons to speed away with more kinetic energy. After discovering this, Lenard reconfigured his experiment to allow him to control the intensity of the incoming light. He used a carbon arc light that could be made brighter by a factor of 1,000.Because both experiments involved increasing the amount of incoming light energy he expected to have identical results. In other words, because the brighter, more intense light had more energy, Lenard expected that the electrons emitted would have more energy and speed away faster. But that’s not what happened. Instead, the more intense light produced more electrons, but the energy of each electron remained the same. [xi]In response to these experiments Einstein suggested that light is composed of discrete packets called photons. Under this assumption, light with higher frequency would cause electrons to be emitted with more energy, and light with higher intensity, that is, a higher quantity of photons, would result in emission of more electrons—just as we observe.The problem with this solution (a solution that is now universally accepted among physicists) is that it doesn’t provide us with a clear description for what the light quanta are. Why does light come in quantized packets? Near the end of his life Einstein lamented over this problem in a letter to his dear friend Michele Besso. He wrote, “All these fifty years of pondering have not brought me any closer to answering the question, what are light quanta?” [xii] It’s been another fifty years and we seem as confused as ever over how it is that light is quantized into little discrete packets called photons.In the midst of these enigmas lies the uncertainty principle, which states that knowledge of certain properties inhibits knowledge of other complimentary properties. For example, the more accurately we determine the position of an electron, the less we can determine its momentum, and vise versa.Heisenberg tried to explain the uncertainty principle by appealing to the observer effect; claiming that it was simply an observational effect of the fact that measurements of quantum systems cannot be made without affecting those systems. [xiii] Since then, the uncertainty principle has regularly been confused with the observer effect. [xiv] But the uncertainty principle is not a statement about the observational success of current technology. It has nothing to do with the observer effect. It highlights a fundamental property of quantum systems, a property that turns out to be inherent in all wave-like systems. [xv] Uncertainty is an aspect of quantum mechanics because of the wave nature it ascribes to all quantum objects.If our current description of quantum mechanics is fundamental, if there is nothing beneath the state vector—a claim that defines the heart of the standard interpretation of quantum mechanics—then this uncertainty principle may be a sharp enough dagger to kill our quest for an intuitive understanding of physical reality. The corrosive power of the uncertainty principle, when mixed with our current paradigm, is poignantly illustrated by an old story involving Niels Bohr. According to the story, Bohr was once asked what the complementary quality to truth is. After some thought he answered—“clarity.” [xvi] Unlike classical mechanics, which describes systems by specifying the positions and velocities of its components, quantum mechanics uses a complex mathematical object called a state vector (also called the wave function [xvii]) to map physical systems. Interjecting this state vector into the theory enables us to match its predictions to our observations of the microscopic world, but it also generates a relatively indirect description that is open to many equally valid interpretations. This creates a sticky situation, because to “really understand” quantum mechanics we need to be able to specify the exact status of and to have some sort of justification for that specification. At the present, we only have questions. Does the state vector describe physical reality itself, or only some (partial) knowledge that we have of reality? “Does it describe ensembles of systems only (statistical description), or one single system as well (single events)? Assume that indeed, is affected by an imperfect knowledge of the system, is it then not natural to expect that a better description should exist, at least in principle?” [xviii] If so, what would this deeper and more precise description of reality be?To explore the role of the state vector, consider a physical system made of Nparticles with mass, each propagating in ordinary three-dimensional space. In classical mechanics we would use Npositions and N velocities to describe the state of the system. For convenience we might also group together the positions and velocities of those particles into a single vector V, which belongs to a real vector space with 6N dimensions, called phase space. [xix]The state vector can be thought of as the quantum equivalent of this classical vector V. The primary difference is that, as a complex vector, it belongs to something called complex vector space, also known as space of states, or Hilbert space. In other words, instead of being encoded by regular vectors whose positions and velocities are defined in phase space, the state of a quantum system is encoded by complex vectors whose positions and velocities live in a space of states. [xx]The transition from classical physics to quantum physics is the transition from phase space to space of states to describe the system. In the quantum formalism each physical observable of the system (position, momentum, energy, angular momentum, etc.) has an associated linear operator acting in the space of states. (Vectors belonging to the space of states are called “kets.”) The question is, is it possible to understand space of states in a classical manner? Could the evolution of the state vector be understood classically (under a projection of local realism) if, for example, there were additional variables associated with the system that were ignored completely by our current description/understanding of it?While that question hangs in the air, let’s note that if the state vector is fundamental, if there really isn’t a deeper-level description beneath the state vector, then the probabilities postulated by quantum mechanics must also be fundamental. This would be a strange anomaly in physics. Statistical classical mechanics makes constant use of probabilities, but those probabilistic claims relate to statistical ensembles. They come into play when the system under study is known to be one of many similar systems that share common properties, but differ on a level that has not been probed (for any reason). Without knowing the exact state of the system we can group all the similar systems together into an ensemble and assign that ensemble state to our system. This is done as a matter of convenience. Of course, the blurred average state of the ensemble is not as clear as any of the specific states the system might actually have. Beneath that ensemble there is a more complete description of the system’s state (at least in principle), but we don’t need to distinguish the exact state in order to make predictions. Statistical ensembles allow us to make predictions without probing the exact state of the system. But our ignorance of that exact state forces those predictions to be probabilistic.Can the same be said about quantum mechanics? Does quantum theory describe an ensemble of possible states? Or does the state vector provide the most accurate possible description of a single system? [xxi]How we answer that question impacts how we explain unique outcomes. If we treat the state vector as fundamental, then we should expect reality to always present itself in some sort of smeared out sense. If the state vector were the whole story, then our measurements should always record smeared out properties, instead of unique outcomes. But they don’t. We always measure well-defined properties that correspond to specific states. Sticking with the idea that the state vector is fundamental, von Neumann suggested a solution called state vector reduction (also called wave function collapse). [xxii] The idea was that when we aren’t looking, the state of a system is defined as a superposition of all its possible states (characterized by the state vector) and evolves according to the Schrödinger equation. But as soon as we look (or take a measurement) all but one of those possibilities collapse. How does this happen? What mechanism is responsible for selecting one of those states over the rest? To date there is no answer. Despite this, von Neumann’s idea has been taken seriously because his approach allows for unique outcomes.The problem that von Neumann was trying to address is that the Schrödinger equation itself does not select single outcomes. It cannot explain why unique outcomes are observed. According to it, if a fuzzy mix of properties comes in (coded by the state vector), a fuzzy mix of properties comes out. To fix this, von Neumann conjured up the idea that the state vector jumps discontinuously (and randomly) to a single value. [xxiii] He suggested that unique outcomes occur because the state vector retains only the “component corresponding to the observed outcome while all components of the state vector associated with the other results are put to zero, hence the name reduction.” [xxiv]The fact that this reduction process is discontinuous makes it incompatible with general relativity. It is also irreversible, which makes it stand out as the only equation in all of physics that introduces time-asymmetry into the world. If we think that the problem of explaining uniqueness of outcome eclipses these problems, then we might be willing to take them in stride. But to make this trade worthwhile we need to have a good story for how state vector collapse occurs. We don’t. The absence of this explanation is referred to as the quantum measurement problem.Many people are surprised to discover that the quantum measurement problem still stands. It has become popular to explain state vector reduction (wave function collapse) by appealing to the observer effect, asserting that measurements of quantum systems cannot be made without affecting those systems, and that state vector reduction is somehow initiated by those measurements. [xxv] This may sound plausible, but it doesn’t work. Even if we ignore the fact that this ‘explanation’ doesn’t elucidate howa disturbance could initiate state vector reduction, this isn’t an allowed answer because “state vector reduction can take place even when the interactions play no role in the process.” [xxvi] This is illustrated by negative measurements or interaction free measurements in quantum mechanics.To explore this point, consider a source, S, that emits a particle with a spherical wave function, which means its values are independent of the direction in space. [xxvii] In other words, it emits photons in random directions, each direction having equal probability. Let’s surround the source by two detectors with perfect efficiency. The first detector D1should be set up to capture the particle emitted in almost all directions, except a small solid angle θ, and the second detector D2 should be set up to capture the particle if it goes through this solid angle (Figure 8).Figure 8 An interaction-free measurement When the wave packet describing the wave function of the particle signNowes the first detector, it may or may not be detected. (The probability of detection depends on the ratio of the subtended angles of the detectors.) If the particle is detected by D1 it disappears, which means that its state vector is projected onto a state containing no particle and an excited detector. In this case, the second detector D2will never record a particle. If the particle isn’t detected by D1 then D2 will detect the particle later. Therefore, the fact that the first detector has not recorded the particle implies a reduction of the wave function to its component contained within θ, implying that the second detector will always detect the particle later. In other words, the probability of detection by D2 has been greatly enhanced by a sort of “non-event” at D1. In short, the wave function has been reduced without any interaction between the particle and the first measurement apparatus.Franck Laloë notes that this illustrates that “the essence of quantum measurement is something much more subtle than the often invoked ‘unavoidable perturbations of the measurement apparatus’ (Heisenberg microscope, etc.).” [xxviii] If state vector reduction really takes place, then it takes place even when the interactions play no role in the process, which means that we are completely in the dark about how this reduction is initiated or how it unfolds. Why then is state vector reduction still taken seriously? Why would any thinking physicist uphold the claim that state vector reduction occurs, when there is no plausible story for how or why it occurs, and when the assertion that it does occur creates other monstrous problems that contradict central tenets of physics? The answer may be that generations of tradition have largely erased the fact that there is another way to solve the quantum measurement problem.Returning to the other option at hand, we note that if we assume that the state vector is a statistical ensemble, if we assume that the system does have a more exact state, then the interpretation of this thought experiment becomes straightforward; initially the particle has a well-defined direction of emission, and D2records only the fraction of the particles that were emitted in its direction.Standard quantum mechanics postulates that this well-defined direction of emission does not exist before any measurement. Assuming that there is something beneath the state vector, that a more accurate state exists, is tantamount to introducing additional variables to quantum mechanics. It takes a departure from tradition, but as T. S. Eliot said in The Sacred Wood, “tradition should be positively discouraged.” [xxix] The scientific heart must search for the best possible answer. It cannot flourish if it is constantly held back by tradition, nor can it allow itself to ignore valid options. Intellectual journeys are obliged to forge new paths.So instead of asking whether of not wave-particle duality is an illusion, perhaps we should ask whether wave-particle duality implies that the state vector is the most fundamental description of a quantum mechanical system, or if a deeper level description exists? That's an open question, and at the moment there are many possible answers — interpretations of quantum mechanics that are equally aligned with the empirical evidence. What's your answer?For more on this topic, and to discover how pilot-wave theory is elucidated by the assumption that the vacuum is a superfluid, see Einstein's Intuition, available in black and white softcover, full color softcover, full color hardcover, an iBook, and as an audiobook.[i] The discussion on interference and the double-slit experiment that follows is further developed by Brian Greene, (2004). The Fabric of the Cosmos: Space, Time and the Texture of Reality. New York: Knopf, pp. 84–84. Greene’s discussion was used as a general guide here.[ii] In order to show diffraction (a fuzzy border of light on the projected image) the slit must have a width that does not greatly exceed the wavelength of the color of the light that we have chosen.[iii] Light’s wave nature was first revealed in the mid-seventeenth century through experiments performed by the Italian scientist Francesco Maria Grimaldi, and was later expanded upon by experiments performed in 1803 by the physician and physicist Thomas Young. (1807). Interference of Light; Alan Lightman. A Sense Of The Mysterious. pp. 51–52, 71.[iv] Before the “planetary model” of the atom, physicists pictured the atom being a plum-shaped blob (the nucleus) with tiny protruding springs that each had an electron stuck to its end. When the atom absorbed energy it was thought that these electrons would jiggle (oscillate) on the ends of their springs. Consequently, any atom that was above its ground state of energy was understood to be an “excited atomic oscillator,” This depiction of the atom wasn’t overthrown until 1900. At that point in history the physical existence of atoms was still controversial. It was replaced by the planetary model, which in turn was replaced by the electron cloud model we use today—a model that was initiated in 1910 and was secured by 1930. Gary Zukav. The Dancing Wu Li Masters, pp. 49–50.[v] Electrons can be individually counted and you can individually place them on a drop of oil and measure their electric charge. Richard Feynman. (1988). QED, The Strange Theory of Light and Matter. Princeton University Press, p. 84.[vi] According to de Broglie’s doctoral thesis all matter has corresponding waves. The wavelength of the “matter waves” that “correspond” to matter depends upon the momentum of the particle. Specifically, , which falls into an important group of equations along with Planck’s equation ) and the ever famous . (λ, pronounced “lambda,” stands for wavelength, h is Planck’s constant, and pronounced ‘nu’ represents the frequency of a photon) From this equation we are told to expect that when we send a beam of electrons (something we might traditionally think of as a stream of particles) through tiny openings, like the spacing between atoms in a piece of nickel crystal, the beam will diffract, just like light diffracts. The only requirement here is that the spacing between the atoms of the material must be as small, or smaller, than the electron’s corresponding wavelength—just like the slits in our double-slit experiment. When we perform the experiment, diffraction and therefore interference, occurs exactly as wave mechanics predicts.[vii] Part of the problem here is that in keeping with our four-dimensional intuition we tend to assume a particle aspect in the double-slit experiment without accounting for nonlocality. By doing this we are technically violating Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and missing the bigger picture.[viii] M. Born. (1926). Quantenmechanik der Stossvorgänge. Zeitschrift für Physik 38, 803–827; (1926). Zur Wellenmechanik der Stossvorgänge. Göttingen Nachrichten 146–160.[ix] Brian Greene. (2004), p. 91.[x] Albert Einstein quoted in Einstein by Walter Isaacson.[xi] Walter Isaacson. Einstein, pp. 96–97.[xii] Ibid.[xiii] Werner Heisenberg. The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory, p. 20.[xiv] Masano Ozawa. (2003). Universally valid reformulation of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle on noise and disturbance in measurement. Physical Review A 67 (4), arXiv:quant-ph/0207121; Aya Furuta. (2012). One Thing Is Certain: Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle Is Not Dead. Scientific American.[xv] L. A. Rozema, A. Darabi, D. H. Mahler, A. Hayat, Y, Soudagar, & A. M. Steinberg. (2012). Violation of Heisenberg’s Measurement—Disturbance Relationship by Weak Measurements. Physical Review Letters 109 (10).[xvi] Steven Weinberg. Dreams Of A Final Theory, p. 74.[xvii] For a system of spinless particles with masses, the state vector is equivalent to a wave function, but for more complicated systems this is not the case. Nevertheless, conceptually they play the same role and are used in the same way in the theory, so that we do not need to make a distinction here. Franck Laloë. Do We Really Understand Quantum Mechanics?, p. 7.[xviii] Franck Laloë. Do We Really Understand Quantum Mechanics?, p. xxi.[xix] There are 6N dimensions in this phase space because there are N particles in the system and each particle comes with 6 data points (3 for its spatial position (x, y, z) and 3 for its velocity, which has x, y, zcomponents also).[xx] The space of states (complex vector space or Hilbert space) is linear, and therefore, conforms to the superposition principle. Any combination of two arbitrary state vectors and within the space of states is also a possible state for the system. Mathematically we write where & are arbitrary complex numbers.[xxi] Franck Laloë. Do We Really Understand Quantum Mechanics?, p. 19.[xxii] Chapter VI of J. von Neumann. (1932). Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik, Springer, Berlin; (1955). Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, Princeton University Press.[xxiii] It might be useful to challenge the logical validity of the claim that something can “cause a random occurrence.” By definition, causal relationships drive results, while “random” implies that there is no causal relationship. Deeper than this, I challenge the coherence of the idea that genuine random occurrences can happen. We cannot coherently claim that there are occurrences that are completely void of any causal relationship. To do so is to wisk away what we mean by “occurrences.” Every occurrence is intimately connected to the whole, and ignorance of what is driving a system is no reason to assume that it is randomly driven. Things cannot be randomly driven. Cause cannot be random.[xxiv] Franck Laloë. Do We Really Understand Quantum Mechanics?, p. 11.[xxv] Bohr preferred another point of view where state vector reduction is not used. D. Howard. (2004). Who invented the Copenhagen interpretation? A study in mythology. Philos. Sci. 71, 669–682.[xxvi] Franck Laloë. Do We Really Understand Quantum Mechanics?, p. 28.[xxvii] This example was inspired by section 2.4 of Franck Laloë’s book, Do We Really Understand Quantum Mechanics?, p. 27–31.[xxviii] Franck Laloë. Do We Really Understand Quantum Mechanics?, p. 28.[xxix] T. S. Eliot. (1921). The Sacred Wood. Tradition and the Individual Talent.
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How capable do you think is the Gripen E against latest models of Sukhois?
The main form of modern air combat has evolved from close-range combat to BVR combat nowadays. During the Gulf War, BVR air-to-air missile shot down more aircraft than close-range air-to-air missile, and air combat wins in several local warfare later were mostly attributed to BVR air-to-air missile.To excel in Beyond Visual Range air combat a fighter must be well-armed and equipped with capable avionics. It must be able to fly high and fast to impart the maximum range to its missiles, allowing them to hit the enemy before he is even aware of their presence. The aircraft must give its crews sufficient situational awareness not to shoot their friends down, and be easy to operate so it can deploy its weapons quickly and accurately.If specifications and Technical details are the mode of comparison , since there is no one - to - one combact conflict in which Sweeden SAAB JAS 39 SMART Fighter came across Russian Flankers, then Gripen NG (a smaller Agile Lethal csot effective bird Gripen E which is a scaled-up version of the C ) can Hold well against Su 27 & Su 30 Variants - Unit Costs reported at 70 - 90 M US$ and Flying Hourly cost 9,000 USD ; Gripen C or E costs less say 50 to 70 M US$ with operating costs around 5,000 USD per hour.Realising the fact that Sukhois are used for Long Range strikes and Air superiority Roles flying for over 35 years (Su 27 did Cobra moves in 1989) ;where as Gripen is a Single Engine Light, Multi Role even SWING ROLE , Smaller Range , can operate from Roads and small runways - A respectable but under rated jet in operation for 18 - 20 years. Export numbers will increase for an Under Dog Gripen , as it took many years for Rafale and F-16s to gain the market attraction.Its E - Variant is a plane built around ACTIVE STEALTH and Electronic Warfare - Arguably its most important attribute is the innovative concept applied in the design of its Systems Architecture, in which flight-critical components are segregated from mission systems. This partition permits the insertion of new mission capabilities without the need for expensive and time-consuming requalification of flight-critical aspects. As a direct result, technology and weapons updates can be inserted rapidly as they emerge, and on a rolling basis.A detailed read on Gripen SMART FIGHTER is belowZeeshan Syed's answer to Who would win in a battle between the JAS-39 Gripen and the F-16 Fighting Falcon?Has a new and more powerful engine, improved range performance and the ability to carry greater payloads. It also has a new AESA-radar, InfraRed Search and Track system, highly advanced Communication systems together with superior situational awareness. The Lightning II JSF F -35 & Gripen - E redefine Multi Role Air power for the 21st century by extending operational capabilities.Gripen ELength over all 15.2 meters ; Width over all 8.6 metersSingle Engine General Electric’s (GE) F414G turbofan engine rated at 22,000lb (98kN) with new six-stage, high-pressure compressorRCS 0.1 to 0.2 m2.Maximum take off weight 16500 kgMaximum speed Mach 2Hardpoints 1027mm all-purpose Mauser BK27 high velocity gunFitted with R-Darter and Derby ; Meteor & IRIS - TCombat turn around air-to-air 10 minutesMin. take-off distance 500 mLanding distance 600 mAir-to-air refuelling YesThe world war heroics of Dog fights , with 20 mm Guns, Canons and Rocket fires are gone . Now the Trench War requuirements demand a Multi Roke Fighter with Range , Depth , BVR capability and Early Detection of enemy through powerful AESA Radar - Early strike capability. Hence its not a typical David vs Golliath - But in Sword vs Shield scenarion , Sukhois are Swords and Gripen being Shields..Sukhoi 27 & 30 will be more prone to be easily detectable due to shear size and lack of semi stealth with higher heat signatures. The Gripen has a radar cross section RCS between 0.1 – 0.5 sqm, because Gripen is a small fighter. “Delta - Canard config” design of Gripen makes it more …Agile & Manoeuvreable..2. In Long range AIR DOMINANCE missions , Sukhoi 27 / 30 Will outrun and out perform Grippen and many others.3. In High Tech gadgets & Electronic Warfare , SAAB Gripen with Advanced AESA radar SELEX RAVEN ES-05, sensor fusion, EW-suite, very advanced link-system - beats Sukhoi 27 / 30 using A Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) N011M passive electronically scanned array radar . SAAB Grippen being a network Centric jet communicating with AWE&C , Freindly jets , Other Gripens and having 2 way link with METEOR presents a modern day fighter with 4.5 Gen capabilities. Its advanced Avionics and FBW systems may remain up to date for next 02 decades …!4. In BVR , Gripen holds its own not only agsinst Sukhoi 27 / 30 and evn Su 35 , but against many other fighters. It uses IRST & Meteor : Beyond Visual Range BVRAAM Air to Air with Active Radar Guidance, which are far superior to Sukhois using AA - 11 ARCHER , AA - 8 APHID , Kh-59M …5. Gripen is ‘Maintenance friendly’ especially from Engine point of view and requires 15 minutes of change over time to get going in the air again ;Compared to Sukhois 27 / 30 who had persistent engine bearing and lubrication problems in dusty subcontinental weather, and 50–55% operational readiness in numbers.MBDA Meteor of Gripen offers a multi-shot capability against long range manoeuvring targets, jets, UAVs and cruise missiles in a Loaded Electronic Counter Measure environment , called ECM. It has range well in excess of 100 kilometres . Meteor can be launched as a stealth missile. It is equipped with enhanced kinematics features. It is capable of striking different types of targets simultaneously in almost any weather.Meteor’s stunning performance is achieved through its unique ramjet propulsion system – solid fuel, variable flow, ducted rocket. This ‘ramjet’ motor provides the missile with thrust all the way to target intercept, providing the largest No-Escape Zone of any air-to-air missile. Many air forces have trained for years in tactics to counter AMRAAM, but few know much about how to respond to the vast No Escape Zone of Meteor. This combined with a two-way datalink (allowing assets other than the firer to communicate with the missile), the aircraft’s low radar signature, and the Gripen’s pilot’s superb situational awareness makes the small Swedish fighter a particularly nasty threat to potential enemies.____________________________________________________________________________________Sukhoi Su 57 & Su 35s E - Super Flankers - are upgraded Flankers and yes they can perform to the level of Gripen E or overpower it with skilled operator . (Su 57 PAKFA Stealth Jet still in Prototype stage with Funding and Engine issues holding it back).SUPER FLANKER Su - 35S is the most capable version built to date. In the right hands—with properly trained pilots and support from ground controllers or an AWACS—the Su-35 is an extremely formidable threat to every Western fighter save for the F-22 Raptor. The kanAPPO bearing No Canards (additional small wings on the forward fuselage) posses the unmatched Power of THRUST VECTORING ENGINES with 2.3 Mach speed, with 14 (Yes Fourteen) Hard points for Weapons…! Su 35 is a Long Range 3,600 kms - 18,000 meters Ceiling , 280 Mps Rate of Climb , TWR 1.13 - It can also be retro-fitted to carry long range anti ship BrahMos missile as well as the much longer range AA-10 (R-27) Alamo missiles. The Irbis E Radar can detect a target with RCS of 3 m^2 from 400 km maximum. It can track 30 targets & engage 8 at a time. Peak output: 20 kW. It has much improved Avionics, SAP-518 wing top Pods, SAP-14 center line pod , IRST OLS-35 electro optical system with a Laser range finder - effective upto 20 km for Air targets. and a combat radius of up to 4000 Km. AL-41 engines on the Su 35 have a life of close to 4000 Hours.One ace the Su-35 has in its sleeve is the inclusion of the R-27T medium range infra-red guided missile (seen on aircraft deployed to Syria) – which is potentially effective against low radar cross section aircraft and has no American equivalent.Detailed read on Super Flanker Su 35SZeeshan Syed's answer to Why does Russia's Air Force still produce Su-30, if they already have many Su-35? Isn't the Su-35 superior in all aspects?The only thing missing was perhaps the ability to Super cruise—perform sustained supersonic flight @. Mach 1.2 - 1.7 Range without using Rejeat After Burners—while loaded for combat.In modern day engagements in the visual arena with high off-bore sight weapons and helmet mounted sights - make it very difficult to accurately predict a clear cut winner — in fact any aircraft may lose in this environment! So Gripens may be dubbed as Flanker Killers , They may be well advised to stay away from Su - 35 S Super Flanker E …
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Does stealth fighter take advantage against normal fighter jet?
Yes! That’s the main idea behind having a stealthy fighter.With a stealthy fighter you are able to avoid most if not all situations such as going toe-to-toe in an all out dogfight with a conventional fighter; not having to fly into eyeball range before engaging that conventional fighter.With stealth you can down a standard fighter before the pilot even knows you’re there.Example: When the F-35 Lightning II was pitted against the vinerable F-16 Fighting-Falcon at Nellis Air Force Base to see how it stood up against the older fighter, the F-16 won all engagements in all scenarios hands-down! Most were totally shocked! Was the F-35 a dud? Was it a waste of time effort and money?The Air Force ran the tests again only instead of making it a totally conventional dogfight the participating F-35s were allowed to use all their tricks. The results were just about the reverse of the first test.Allowed to use their stealth capabilities to the fullest they turned the tables of the grand old F-16.Once an air-to-air missile is launched it’s a matter of trying to avoid it. A pilot is too busy trying not to get blow-up by the on-coming missile to try to track back to where it came from and it wouldn’t matter anyway because the attacking stealth fighter is instantly back into it’s stealth mode; way beyond the point where it launched its missile and weapons bay doors rapidly closed again making it very stealthy again and difficult to pick up by IR seeker or radar.Simply you can’t fight what you have difficulty in seeing or even knowing where it actually is.
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Is MiG-35 operationally ready? Should India buy this fighter jet over Rafale, Eurofighter, and F21?
The Russians offered the same jet for MMRCA 1.0 and they are again pitching the same aircraft for MMRCA 2.0 also. No major changes have taken place to the aircraft, other than the fact that the Russian Air Force and the Egyptian Air Force has placed an order for it. Some reports suggest that the Iraqis have also ordered the same.The MiG-35 is essentially a MiG-29 on steroids. It’s a very refined and heavily re-engineered version of the MiG-29M, which in fact is an advanced variant of the MiG-29K. It was initially named the MiG-33 and later paved way for the MiG-35.GENERAL CHARACTERISTICSLength: 17.3 m (56 ft 9 in)Wingspan: 12 m (39 ft 4 in)Height: 4.73 m (15 ft 6 in)Wing area: 38 m² (409 ft²)Empty weight: 11,000 kg (24,250 lb)Loaded weight: 17,500 kg (38,600 lb)Max. takeoff weight: 29,700 kg (65,500 lb)SPECIFICATIONSPower-plant: It is powered by 2x RD-33MKBs, each generating 53kN of thrust and 88.3kN with afterburners. The most interesting aspect of MiG-35 which sets it apart from the other contenders is that it’s the only fighter in MMRCA 2.0 with Thrust Vectoring Nozzles. This will enable the fighter to attain flight even at very low speeds and without angle-of-attack. An RD-33MK at MAKS 2015, Credits in picThis feature could really set apart the fighter in terms of high angle of turn rate, the critical angle of attack and overall manoeuvrability. These are critical when the fighter finds itself in a dogfight scenario. The modular construction of engines helps in easy maintenance and increases the availability rate of squadrons.Max Speed: Mach 1.17 (At sea level) / Mach 2.20 (At cruising altitude)Range/Combat Radius: ~2000km/~1000kmFerry Range: ~3100km (with 3x external fuel tanks) / ~6000km (with in-flight refueling)Service ceiling: 19,000 m (62,340 ft)Rate of climb: 330 m/s (65,000 ft/min)Thrust/weight: 1.03Maximum g-load: +10 gAirframe modifications: The airframe is heavily modified from the existing MiG-29K. The weapon load points are now increased to 9x (MiG-29K had 8x hardpoints). Fuel capacity is increased and can even don the role of a tanker by fitting 3x external fuel tanks. The airframe is made corrosion resistant which is in line with its role to completely take over the naval role MiG-29 currently dons.Radar: MiG-35, when inducted into service, would be the first active Russian aircraft to be fitted with an AESA (Active Electronically Scanned Array). It would be fitted with the Zhuk-MAE(export variant of AE) radar, which has the ability to detect targets at ~250km for a 3m^2 RCS target. The figure is for the FGA-35 radar, whether Russia will allow its export is still in doubt. In that case, the base radar can detect targets at ~160km for air targets (~130km for 5m^2 RCS) and about ~300km for surface targets.Zhuk MAE at MAKS 2007, WikimediaCommons/SimmsThe radar has the ability to work over a wide range of frequencies enabling it to be better defended against Electronic Counter Measures like jamming. It can track up to 30 targets at a time and can engage up to 6x air targets and 4x ground targets.Another key piece of targeting equipment is the OLS-35 IRST(InfraRed Search&Track). These are electro-optical targeting system capable of detecting the heat signature of fighters. Any machinery gives out heat and this system can track the aircraft using this heat signature irrespective of the RCS, size or weather. The OLS-35 IRST can detect targets at ~30km in tail-chase and ~15km in the head-on scenario. For afterburning targets, detection could happen above the said values. These are so essential in modern jets as these can easily detect stealth targets where a radar can’t. These systems can act as a range finder and also lase ground targets (OLS-KE).Sensors aboard the MiG-35. Credits to creatorThe MIG-35 is designed with the thought of interdependence of modern nations in mind. The open architecture of flight avionics enables it very easy to integrate foreign equipment into the aircraft without having to make major changes. This comes as a big boon to India who is heavily reliant on Israeli flight tech.The fighter is loaded with sensors to counter the biggest threat in modern day aerial combat- Electronic Weapons. It comes loaded with SOAR infrared missile-approach warning system, SOLO laser warning receivers and ELT/568(V)2 Self-protection jammer to neutralize radar based air defense systems.Weapons: The aircraft comes loaded with the standard GSh-301 auto-cannon. With 9x hardpoints available, the aircraft can carry a maximum of 7000kg of weapons.Air-to-Air: R-73, R-77Air-to-Surface:Missiles: Kh-25MAE, Kh-29LTE, Kh-38ME, Kh-36 Grom-E1 (Kh-36 is a AGM with about 150km-300km range, which couldn’t be delivered aboard the MiG-29)MiG-35 with 2x R-73, 4x R-77, 2x KAB-500KR (from outermost to innermost)Bombs: KAB-500 (Laser guided/TV guided/Glonass guided)Rockets: S-8, S-13, S-25L (LD) laser guided variant, S-25-O with fragmentation warhead and radio proximity fuse, S-24A configuration of 4x Kh-31 PD (Anti-Radiation) or 4x Kh-31 AD (Anti-Ship) is also possible.In short, the Russians present to us a very capable 4++ generation fighter that the Indian Air Force would be very comfortable operating. The Russians would also feel comfortable in complete ToT realizing the past experience with SU-30Mki. However, there are still more parameters that we can’t work out sitting here, but requires very advanced evaluation criterion, that I believe the IAF is doing well.So in conclusion by analysing all the parameters we could say that mig 35 will might have an edge in MMRCA 2.0 where it's main competitor will be with Dassault Rafale.If you like my answer the please share and upvote.
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