Fill and Sign the Informed Consent for Treatment with and Discharge Instructions Columbiarheumatology

American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences Special Issue on ‘VERMICULTURE & SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE’ Principal Authors Rajiv K. Sinha Visiting Senior Lecturer Griffith School of Engineering (Environment), (Vermiculture Unit), Griffith University, Nathan, Campus, Brisbane, QLD-4111, Australia *(Corresponding Author) (Rajiv.Sinha@griffith.edu.au) Sunil Herat Senior Lecturer Griffith School of Engineering (Environment), (Vermiculture Unit), Griffith University, Nathan, Campus, Brisbane, QLD -4111, Australia Co-authors Dalsukh Valani & Krunal Chauhan Master Students Worked on Vermiculture Research Projects (Under Rajiv K. Sinha & Sunil Herat) Griffith School of Engineering (Environment), Griffith Univers ity ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors expresses their deep sense of gratitude to Mr. Muhammad Zeeshan, Managing Editor of IDOSI, for publishing this ‘Special Issue’ on ‘Vermiculture & Sustainable Agriculture’. We are grateful to Prof. Bofo Yu, HOS, and Prof. Roger Braddock (Former Director of Research Center), Griffith School of Engineering , Griffith University, Australia, for their moral and financial supports given for researches on vermiculture projects. Our work on ‘Vermiculture Studies’ has always been inspired by the great visionary scientists Sir Charles Darwin who called ‘Earthworms’ as ‘Friends of Farmers’ and the ancient Indian scientist Surpala who recognized the value of earthworms in plant growth in 10th Century A.D in his book ‘Vrikshayurveda’ (Science of Tree Growing). We are trying to revive their dreams & scientifically validate their visions. We are also grateful to all those farmers in India & Australia who gave us valuable feedback on the role of earthworms in agriculture and to all those scientists and students working on vermiculture studies throughout the world from whose valued publications we have learnt much about the subject. Important among them are – Antoly Igonin, C.A. Edwards, Mary Appelhof, Norman Arancon, J.C. Buckerfield, R.M. Atiyeh, V. Tomati, A. Grappelli, E. Galli, Katie Webster, Glenn Munroe, M. Morgan, J.P. Martin, J. Frederickson, Peter Bogdanov, R.L. Neilson, J.E. Satchell, M.P. Ireland, S.M. Contreras -Ramos, S. Ghabbour, R.D. Kale, C. Visvanathan, S.A. Ismail, S.N. Seenappa, S. Palanisamy, K. Gunathilagraj, Uday Bhawalkar, V.K. Garg & Jaya Nair. We greatly acknowledge the important contributions of Dr. R.K. Suhane and Dr. P.K. Singh, Senior Agriculture Scientists, Rajendra Agriculture University, Bihar, India who worked in a Collaborative Research Program for carrying out some farm studies in India. Principal author Dr. Rajiv K. Sinha also acknowledge the works of his Ph. D scholars Sunita Agarwal, Sonu Bhatia & Reena Sharma (University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India) and Gokul Bharambe, Dalsukh Valani, Krunal Chauhan & Kulbaibhav Singh (Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia) for their important experimental studies which helped in the preparation of this document. List of Contents 1). The Concept of Sustainable Agriculture: An Issue of Food Safety & Security for People, Economic Prosperity for the Farmers & Ecological Security for the Nations 2). Earthworms : The ‘Unheralded Soldiers of Mankind’ & ‘Farmer’s Friend’ Working Day & Night Under the Soil: Reviving the Dreams of Sir Charles Darwin for Promoting Sustainable Agriculture 3). Earthworms Vermicompost : A Powerful Crop Nutrient Over the Conventional Compost & Protective Soil Conditioner Against the Destructive Chemical Fertilizers for Food Safety & Security 4). Vermiculture Can Promote Sustainable Agriculture and Completely Replace Chemical Agriculture : Some Experimental Evidences by Studies on Potted & Farmed Cereal & Vegetable Crops - 5). Environmental – Economics of Crop Production by Vermiculture: Economically Viable & Environmentally Sustainable Over Chemical Agriculture 6). References & Further Readings American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 ISSN 1818-6769 © IDOSI Publications, 2009 The Concept of Sustainable Agriculture: An Issue of Food Safety and Security for People, Economic Prosperity for the Farmers and Ecological Security for the Nations Key words: Green revolution by chemical agriculture curse in disguise second green r volution by e vermiculture revolution organic farming backbone of sustainable agriculture earthworms vermicompost superb organic fertilizers miracle growth promoter biovillages in Bihar (India) embracing organic farming sustainable agriculture • • • • • • • • • INTRODUCTION: THE IMPENDING THREAT OF CHEMICAL AGRICULTURE TO HUMAN HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT Chemical agriculture triggered by widespread use of agro-chemicals in the wake of ‘green revolution’ of the 1950s-60s came as a ‘mixed-blessing’ rather a ‘curse in disguise’ for mankind. It dramatically increased the ‘quantity’ of the food produced but severely decreased its ‘nutritional quality’ and also the ‘soil fertility’ over the years. The soil has become addict and increasingly greater amount of chemical fertilizers are needed every year to maintain the soil fertility and food productivity at the same levels. The early response to chemical fertilizers is ‘levelling off’ after a 3% annual increase between 1950-1984. There is evidence that a plateau has been reached in global efforts to increase the yield per hectare through agro-chemicals. Increased use of agro-chemicals have virtually resulted into ‘biological droughts’ (severe decline in beneficial soil microbes and earthworms which help to renew the natural fertility of soil) in soils in the regions of green revolution in world where heavy use of agro-chemicals were made. Higher uses of agro-chemicals also demands high use of water for irrigation putting severe stress on ground and surface waters. Soil a water nd pollution due to seepage and drainage especially after heavy rainfall were other ill-effects on farmlands. Widespread use of chemical pesticides became a necessity for the growth of high-yielding varieties of crops which was highly ‘susceptible to pests and diseases’. Continued application of chemical pesticides induced ‘biological resistance’ in crop pests and diseases and lograthmatically much higher doses are now required to eradicate them. Studies indicate that there is significant amount o ‘residual pesticides’ contaminating our food stuff long f after they are taken away from farms for human consumption. Vegetable samples were contaminated 100% with HCH and 50 per cent with DDT (143). Bhatnager (25) reported pesticide residues in wheat flour samples. Contamination with HCH was 70%, Heptachlore 2 was 45%, Aldrin 45% and DDT 91%. 60% of water samples were found to be contaminated with Aldrin and 50% with DDT. They were all higher than permissible limits of WHO. A study made by the Society for Research and Initiative for Sustainable Technologies and Institutions (SRISTI), Ahmedabad, India, to analyse the residual pesticide in soils of croplands of Gujarat found that 41 out of 70 samples contained insecticidal residues of Phosphamidon, DDVP, Methyl parathion, Malathion, Chlorpyriphos and three different pyrethroids. Rao (143) also reported residues of pesticides in meat, fish, eggs, butter, milk including in mother’s milk and human fat. The contamination was 100% with HCH, 69% with DDT and 43% with aldrin. In human fat DDT residue ranged from 1.8 ppm in Lucknow to 22.4 ppm in Ahmedabad; HCH ranged from 1.6 ppm in Bombay to 7 ppm in Bangalore. Adverse effects of agro-chemicals on the agricultural ecosystem (soil, flora, fauna & water bodies in farms) and also on the health of farmers using them and the society consuming the chemically grown food have now started to become more evident all over the world. According to United Nation Environment Program (UNEP) and the World Health Organization (WHO) nearly 3 million people suffer from ‘acute pesticide poisoning’ and some 10 to 20 thousands people die every year from it in the developing countries (196). US scientists predict that up to 20,000 Americans may die of cancer, each year, due to the low levels of ‘residual pesticides’ in the Corresponding Author: Dr. Rajiv K. Sinha, School of Engineering (Environment), (Vermiculture Unit), Griffith University, Nathan, Campus, Brisbane, QLD-4111, Australia 1 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 chemically grown food. (196). The farmers today are caught in a ‘vicious circle’ of higher use of agrochemicals to boost crop productivity at the cost of declining soil fertility. This is also adversely affecting their economy as the cost of agrochemicals has been rising all over the world. EMBRACING THE CONCEPT OF ‘SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE’: EMBARKING ON A ‘SECOND GREEN REVOLUTION’ THROUGH ‘ORGANIC FARMING’ BY VERMICULTURE The term ‘Sustainable Development’ was coined by Bruntdland Commisssion Report ‘Our Common Future’ in 1982 which redefined the concept of human development as the development (both social & economic) to‘meet the ‘needs’ (but not the ‘greed’) of the present generation without compromising with the abilities of the future generations to meet their own needs and that should improve the total quality of all life (human beings, plants and animals) on Earth now and in the future too, while maintaining the social and ecological integrity (natural and man-made ecosystems) of the earth upon which all life depends and which can provide good quality of life to all the people born on Earth, while protecting their basic life-support systems (air, water, soil, flora and fauna) and also safely disposing all the wastes generated by them’ (195 & 198). The scientific community all over the world is desperately looking for an ‘economically viable, socially safe & environmentally sustainable’ alternative to the destructive ‘chemical agriculture’ which would not only ‘maintain’ but also ‘enhance’ farm production per hectare of available land as the farmlands all over the world is shrinking in the wake of rapid urbanization. Then, it is not enough to produce ‘sufficient food’ to feed the civilization (which was the primary objectives of chemical based green revolution) but also to produce a ‘high quality of food’ which should be ‘safe’ (chemical free) and also ‘protective’ to human health (good combination of macro and micro nutrients and vitamins) and do it in a sustainable manner to ensure ‘food security’ for all, but most for them in the poor Third World nations in the long term. ‘Food Safety & Security’ is a major issue everywhere in the world. This will amount to embarking on a ‘Second Green Revolution’ and this time by ‘Organic Farming’ practices completely giving up the use of agro-chemicals (33; 44; 77; 78; 102 & 172). The new concept of farm production against the destructive ‘Chemical Agriculture’ has been termed as ‘Sustainable Agriculture’. This is about growing ‘nutritive and protective foods’ with the aid of biological based ‘organic fertilizers’ without recourse to agro-chemicals. This is thought to be the answer for the ‘food safety and security’ for the human society in future. The U.S. National Research Council (1989) defined sustainable agriculture as ‘those alternative farming systems and technologies incorporating natural processes, reducing the use of inputs of off-farm sources, ensuring the long term sustainability of current production levels and conserving soil, water, energy and farm biodiversity’. It is a system of food production which avoids or largely excludes the use of systematically compounded chemical fertilizers and pesticides and use of environmentally friendly organic inputs. To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming systems rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes and green manures to maintain soil productivity and tilth to supply plant nutrients. It emphasizes on both preventive and curative methods of pest control such as the use of pest resistant cultivars, bio-control agents and cultural methods of pest-control. In the US, the top 25% of sustainable agriculture farmers practicing ‘organic farming’ now have better gross margins and better yields than the top 25% of their counterparts still practicing chemical agriculture (1). Swedish farmers are practicing the ‘Cleanest Agriculture’ in world now since 1972. They have developed an alternative system of agriculture based upon the vision of ‘kretslopp’--‘agriculture which aims to be in harmony with the cycle of nature’ and therefore, highly sustainable. They have drastically cut the use of pesticides, herbicides and fungicides by 70 per cent since 1985 (196 & 197). Vermicompost (metabolic products of earthworms feeding on organic wastes) is proving to be highly nutritive ‘organic fertilizer’ and a ‘miracle growth promoter’ rich in NKP (nitrogen 2-3%, potassium 1.85-2.25% and phosphorus 1.55-2.25%), micronutrients, beneficial soil microbes and also contain ‘plant growth hormones & enzymes’. Evidences are accumulating all over the world including our own studies (discussed later in chapters) that the earthworms and their vermicompost can do the miracle. They can ‘build up soil’, ‘restore soil fertility’, ‘sustain farm production’ and also deliver ‘safe food’ for the civilization. Agenda 21 on sustainable agriculture: The Chapter on ‘Sustainable Agriculture’ in Agenda 21 adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, June 1992, makes it obligatory for international agencies and 2 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 governments of all nations to give incentives to farmers to shift away from the environmentally destructive hightech chemical agriculture to the environmentally friendly sustainable agriculture by improving upon the traditional technologies with modern scientific knowledge. The International Movement for Ecological Agriculture held in Penang, Malaysia (Jan. 10-13, 1990) has also called for alternative technology in agriculture. MOVEMENT FOR ORGANIC FARMING AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE The International Institute of Environment and Development (IIED), London, examined the extent and impact of ‘Non-Chemical Sustainable Agriculture’ in a number of countries. Sustainable agriculture is synonymous with ‘Cleaner Agriculture’ as the objective is to reduce or even eliminate the use of dangerous agrochemicals from food production and also to reduce the use of other precious farm inputs like water and energy whose indiscriminate use to boost food production (to feed the growing masses) has led to widespread environmental destruction by way of soil salinity, waste and pollution (139 & 140). According to IIED there are some 1.82 million households farming 4.1 mha with cleaner chemical-free agriculture technologies in 20 developing countries. All have used resource conserving technologies and practicing organic farming. In the U.S. some 69 large scale farmers had switched over to ‘organic farming’ by 1980 (1). The figure must have increased significantly by now. In India several farmers are being motivated to shift to ‘organic farming & sustainable agriculture’ through vermiculture and give up ‘chemical agriculture’ (172). A number of villages in the districts of Samastipur, Hazipur and Nalanda in Bihar have been designated as ‘BIO-VILLAGES’ where the farmers have completely embraced ORGANIC FARMING by use of earthworms and vermicompost. They have completely given up the use of chemical fertilizers for the last four years since 2005. They are growing both cereal (rice, wheat & corn), fruits (banana, guava, mango & lemons) and vegetable crops (potato, tomato, onion, brinjal, cucumber, okra etc) on vermicompost. Farmers of bio-villages feel proud of their food products and they sell at a higher price in market due to their good appearance and taste (Personal Interview by Rajiv Sinha, December, 2008). In the OECD countries, a shift to cleaner sustainable agriculture is expected to bring a slight short-term decline in productivity of around 5 -15%. But the decline in the ‘cost o input’ of cleaner agriculture is sharper f and therefore more profitable to the farmers practicing cleaner chemical-free agriculture than the farmers practicing chemical agriculture where the cost of inputs were several times high (170 & 172). Evidences are gathering that in the long term (5 to 10 years) yields in cleaner chemical-free agriculture will recover to former levels as the soil regenerates slowly with the use of local biological farm inputs (instead of dangerous agrochemicals), natural soil fertility is renewed, pests becomes isolated, farmers becomes more skilled and able to understand and manage their new production system and agro-ecosystem (139 & 140). VERMICULTURE CAN PROMOTE ORGANIC FARMING & SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE Sustainable agriculture is a process of learning new and innovative methods developed by both farmers and the farm scientist and also learning from the traditional knowledge and practices of the farmers and implementing what were good in them and also relevant in present times. Vermiculture was practiced by traditional and ancient farmers with enormous benefits accruing for them and their farmlands. There is need to revive this ‘traditional concept’ through modern scientific knowledge-a ‘Vermiculture Revolution’. Sir Charles Darwin called the earthworms as ‘farmer’s friends’. There is great wisdom in this statement of the great visionary scientist who advocated to use the earthworms, the ‘nature’s gift’ in farm production. It is necessary to adopt and implement food & agriculture production system which must ensure: • • • • Maintenance of soil microbiology and fertility by greater use of biofertilizers. High productivity and stability of yield over the years. Productivity with ‘minimum’ or ‘no’ tilling; ‘low’ use of agro-chemicals (only as helping hand) and integration with biofertilizers and biopesticides. Productivity with minimum use of water and even sustain dryness or heavy rainfall. 3 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 • • • • • • Preservation of crop diversity (biotopes). Preservation of soil, water and air quality in the farm ecosystem. Preservation of benevolent organisms (predators) flora & fauna in the farm ecosystem. Preservation of groundwater table. Preservation of good health for all. Reduction of water and energy use. These are the objectives of organic farming & sustainable agriculture. Sustained vermiculture practices and use of vermicompost in farm soil over the years would meet several of the above requirements for a truly sustainable agriculture (168). Vermicompost is rich in microbial diversity and plant available nutrients; improve moisture holding capacity of soils thus reducing water for irrigation; improve physical, biological and chemical properties of soil; increase soil porosity & softness thus requiring minimum tillage. They have been discussed in later chapters. Environmental and economic benefits of vermiculture: There will also be ample opportunity to reduce energy use and reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in vermicompost production locally at farms by the farmers themselves. Huge amount of energy is used and GHG emitted at chemical fertilizer factories apart from ‘toxic and hazardous wastes’ that is generated. Farm energy requirements might be reduced by 40% by more efficient methods of food production through vermiculture technology. If there is decline in the use of external inputs (agro-chemicals), with more use of locally produced biofertilizers (vermicompost) the costs of food produced by farmers practicing sustainable agriculture will be reduced significantly. There will be more useful trees, more farm wildlife, increased groundwater in wells and ponds, cleaner non-polluted water bodies, more soft & nutritive soils with biological organisms in and around the farmlands in the farm ecosystem where sustainable agriculture is practiced by vermiculture. These will help boost the ‘economic prosperity’ of farmers. CONCLUSIONS AND REMARKS Planning global organic farming and sustainable agriculture can truly bring in ‘economic prosperity’ for the farmers, ‘ecological security’ for the farms and ‘food security’ for the people. This will require embarking on a ‘Second Green Revolution’- and this time through ‘Vermiculture Revolution’- by the earthworms - Darwin’s children & the ‘miracle of nature’ (27; 168 & 172). Organic food products produced through organic farming systems are the fastest growing food sector in the world food market. Australia is a small player in the global organic food market. It was estimated to be AU $ 33 billion in 2003. And the foundation of organic farming is ‘healthy soil’. Organic farming practices aim to increase soil humus (and thus encourage increased biological activity within the soil) and in-built systems of ‘plant protection’ within the farm ecosystem (natural pest control by soil & farm biodiversity) without recourse to agro-chemicals. And both these objectives can be achieved by integrating vermiculture in farming systems. A shift to organic farming driven sustainable agriculture would require immense patience on the part of farmers during the transition period and till the productivity is restored to original level. It will be another challenge for the scientific community as great as it was in the 1950’ & 60’s when the 1st ’Green Revolution’ was launched with the aid of ‘agrochemicals’ to boost farm productivity and save the growing human population from starvation (56). It would also require a huge investment by the government in building ‘local capacity’ to the farmers in developing countries. But this investment, would be an investment both in the current as well as in the future ‘capacity building’ of the farmers to feed the world (105; 198; 199 & 202). 4 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 Earthworms: The ‘Unheralded Soldiers of Mankind’ and ‘Farmer’s Friend’ Working Day and Night Under the Soil: Reviving the Dreams of Sir Charles Darwin for Promoting Sustainable Agriculture Key words: Vermiculture biotechnology key to sustainable agriculture earthworms converts most organic waste into nutritive compost earthworms improves physical chemical and biological properties of soil earthworms are disinfecting neutralizing, protective productive agents of nature • • • • • • • INTRODUCTION: REVIVING THE TRADITIONAL VERMICULTURE TECHNOLOGY FOR PROMOTING ORGANIC FARMING & SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE Earthworms are an important organism in the soil doing great service for mankind for millions of years now. It combines immense social, economic and environmental values together which is now being realized and recognized. A newer branch of biotechnology called ‘Vermiculture Technology’ is emerging by the use of earthworms to solve various environmental problems from waste management to land (soil) improvement. Sir Charles Darwin, the great visionary biological scientist highlighted about its role in ‘soil improvement and farm production’ long time ago and traditional farming community was also practicing vermiculture in their farms. Unfortunately, very little attention was given to it by post-Darwin biological scientists and the modern agricultural scientists and also the farming community of world who saw ‘agrochemicals’ as a technological boon to produce more food in shorter time. Biological and agricultural scientists all over the world, after getting utterly disappointed by modern chemical agriculture which is destroying the soil and also adversely affecting human health (the ‘boon’ turning into ‘bane’) is now looking back into the ‘traditional wisdom’ and trying to revive the dreams of Charles Darwin. Earthworms when present in soil inevitably work as ‘soil conditioner’ to improve its physical, chemical and biological properties and also its nutritive value for healthy plant growth. This they do by soil fragmentation and aeration, breakdown of organic matter in soil & release of nutrients, secretion of plant growth hormones, proliferation of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, increasing biological resistance in crop plants and all these worm activities contribute to improved crop productivity. Worms swallow large amount of soil with organics everyday and digest them by enzymes. Only 5-10 percent of the digested material is absorbed into the body and the rest is excreted out in the form of fine mucus coated granular aggregates called ‘vermicastings’ which are rich in NKP (nitrates, phosphates and potash), micronutrients and beneficial soil microbes (24 & 35). Value of earthworms in plant propagation was emphasized by the great Indian author Surpala in his epic ‘Vriksha-ayurveda’ (Science of Tree Growing) as early as in the 10th century A.D. He recommended to incorporate earthworms in soil of pomogranate plants to obtain high quality fruits (150). This traditional wisdom has been scientifically verified today for successful & sustainable growth of several fruits, vegetables and cereal crops today without the use of agrochemicals (168). VERMICULTURE REVOLUTION FOR SAFE WASTE MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE FOOD PRODUCTION A revolution is unfolding in vermiculture studies (rearing of useful earthworms species) for multiple uses in sustainable waste management and sustainable agriculture. (36; 80;122 & 151). Earthworms have over 600 million years of experience in waste & land management, soil improvement & farm production. No wonder, Sir Charles Darwin called them as the ‘unheralded soldiers of mankind and farmer’s friend working day and night under the soil’. Vermiculture biotechnology promises to provide cheaper solutions for: • Management of municipal & industrial solid wastes (organics) by biodegradation & stabilization and converting them into nutritive organic fertilizer (vermicompost)-‘THE VERMI-COMPOSTING 5 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 • TECHNOLOGY’ (VCT). It amounts to converting ‘trash into treasure’ or getting ‘wealth from waste’ or ‘gold from garbage’ (29; 34; 36; 37; 63; 66; 160; 173: 200 & 201). (Value of earthworms in waste management was emphasized by Greek Philosopher Aristotle who called as ‘intestine of earth’ which meant that they can digest wide variety of materials from earth). Restoring & improving soil fertility and boosting food productivity by worm activity and use of vermicompost (miracle growth promoter) without recourse to the destructive agro-chemicals-‘THE VERMIAGRO-PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY’ (VAPT). It amounts to getting ‘green gold’ (crops) from ‘brown gold’ (vermicompost). Palainsamy (133) indicated that in the tropics earthworms improve the growth and yield of wheat grown with wormcasts. According to him, fertilizing soils with worms can increase crop yield by more than 40%. Baker & Barrett (28) at CSIRO, Australia found that the earthworms can increase growth of wheat crops by 39%, grain yield by 35%, lift protein value of the grain by 12% & fight crop diseases. Bhawalkar & Bhawalkar (35) experimented that an earthworm population of 0.2-1.0 million per hectare can be established within a short period of three months. This is the only key to a quick change over to sustainable agriculture without loss of crop yield. Gunathilagraj (92) noted that the association between plant and earthworms induced significant variation among the plants. He reported that small doses of NPK fertilizers and earthworms + cowdung + mulch significantly increased the chlorophyll protein, potassium, iron, manganese and zinc contents in the field crops. Nations of world today is seeking the most cost-effective, economically viable, environmentally sustainable & socially acceptable technology that can convert all ‘organic waste’ into a valuable ‘resource’ to be used back into the human society. Earthworms have potential of generating NPK equal to 10 million tonnes annually in India (and other nations too) as huge amount of organic waste is generated every year and 1,000 tonnes of organic wastes can be degraded to 300 tonnes of nutritive vermicompost rich in NPK and all essential micronutrients by about few million worms whose population almost double every year (34). The organic fraction of the MSW (about 70-80%) containing plenty of nitrogen (N), potash (K) and phosphorus (P) is a good source of macro and micronutrients for the soil. Vermicomposting of all waste organics especially the ‘food & garden waste’ of society and using the nutritive end-product to grow ‘food’ again will establish the concept of ‘circular metabolism’ for a sustainable society. Earthworms Plant growth hormones and beneficial soil microbes Vermi-agroproduction of food (Safe organic food) Decomposer microbes and waste degrading enzymes The Sustainability Cycle of Human Society Vermi-composting of food waste (Nutritive vermicompost) Organic fertilizer (High NPK, micronutrients, enzymes & growth hormones) (Circular Metabolism & the Sustainability Cycle of Human Society) Vermi-composting and Vermi-agroproduction is self-promoted, self-regulated, self-improved & selfenhanced, low or no-energy requiring zero-waste technology, easy to construct, operate and maintain. It excels all ‘bio-conversion’, ‘bio-degradation’ & ‘bio-production’ technologies by the fact that it can utilize organics that otherwise cannot be utilized by others. It excels all ‘bio-treatment’ technologies because it achieves greater utilization than the rate of destruction achieved by other technologies. It involves about 100-1000 times higher ‘value addition’ than other biological technologies (9 & 10). About 4,400 different species of earthworms have been identified and quite a few of them are versatile waste eaters and bio-degraders and several of them are bio-accumulators & bio-transformers of toxic chemicals from contaminated soils rendering the land fit for productive uses (57; 64 ; 66; 146; 171& 181). 6 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 Versatile waste eater and decomposer Eisinia fetida NATURAL ATTRIBUTES & ADAPTATIONS OF EARTHWORMS TO PERFORM THE DUAL ROLES OF WASTE & LAND (SOIL) MANAGERS Earthworms are long, narrow, cylindrical, bilaterally symmetrical, segmented animals without bones measuring few centimeters. Tropical worms are bigger & robust. An e xceptionally big species about a meter long is reported from Victoria in Australia. The body is dark brown, glistening and covered with delicate cuticle. They weigh over 1400-1500 mg after 8 weeks. On an average, 2000 adult worms weigh 1 kg and one million -10 worms weigh approximately 1 ton. Usually the life span of an earthworm is about 3 to 7 years depending upon the type of species and the ecological situation (65 & 92). Earthworms love to feed upon ‘cattle dung’ which is preferred food for them. When given a choice between various foods the worms consumed 10 mg dry weight of dung per gram body weight per day together with smaller amount of leaf litter. In about 13 days Allolobophora caliginosa consumed 13.1 gram of dung while only 1.3 gram of grass leaves (30). However, firm leaves particularly the grass leaves are not eaten until they had decayed to a moist, brown condition. Worms have ‘chemoreceptors’ which aid in search of food (65). Earthworms harbor millions of ‘nitrogen-fixing’ and ‘decomposer microbes’ in their gut. They have to necessarily feed upon microbes, particularly fungi, to meet their protein/nitrogen requirement essential for growth and reproduction. Earthworms also produce huge amount of ‘intestinal mucus’ composed of glycoproteins and small glucosidic and proteic molecules. The microbes entering the gut of worms consume all these nitrogenous compounds of the mucus, which largely increase their activity, which in turn enables them to contribute enzymes in the digestive process of earthworms (214). The microbes not only mineralize the complex substances into plant-available form but also synthesize a whole series of ‘biologically active’ substances. Worm’s body contains 65% protein (70-80% high quality ‘lysine rich protein’ on a dry weight basis), 14% fats, 14% carbohydrates and 3% ash (205). Earthworms act as an aerator, grinder, crusher, chemical degrader and a biological stimulator wherever they inhabit (57; 171). 7 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 Enormous power of reproduction and rapid rate of multiplication: Earthworms multiply very rapidly. They are bisexual animals and cross-fertilization occurs as a rule. After copulation the clitellum (a prominent band) of each worm eject lemon-shaped ‘cocoon’ where sperms enter to fertilize the eggs. Up to 3 cocoons per worm per week are produced. From each cocoon about 10-12 tiny worms emerge. Studies indicate that they double their number at least every 60 days. Given the optimal conditions of moisture, temperature and feeding materials earthworms can multiply by 28 i.e. 256 worms every 6 months from a single individual. Each of the 256 worms multiplies in the same proportion to produce a huge biomass of worms in a short time. The total life-cycle of the worms is about 220 days. They produce 300-400 young ones within this life period (96). A mature adult can attain reproductive capability within 8-12 weeks of hatching from the cocoon. Red worms takes only 4-6 weeks to become sexually mature (205). Earthworms continue to grow throughout their life and the number of segments continuously proliferates from a growing zone just in front of the anus. Table 1: Reproductive capacity of some environmentally supportive worms Sexual maturity Species No. of Cocoons hatching Egg Hatching time (days) cocoon. time (days) maturity days (%) No. of Net reproduction hatchlings rate/week E. fetida 53-76 3.8 32-73 85-149 83.2 3.3 10.4 E. eugeniae 32-95 3.6 13-27 43-122 81.0 2.3 6.7 P. excavatus 28-56 19.5 16-21 44-71 90.7 1.1 19.4 D. veneta 57-86 1.6 40-126 97-214 81.2 1.1 1.4 Source: Edwards (1988) Sensitive to light, cold and dryness: Earthworms are very sensitive to light, cold and dryness. They tend to migrate away temporarily into deeper layers of soil when subjected to light, too cold or too hot situations. This is of great survival to them especially in cold winters and hot summers. Adapted to survive in harsh environment: Some species e.g. Eisinea fetida are highly adapted to survive in ‘harsh’ conditions where no creature on earth can survive. After the Seveso chemical plant explosion in 1976 in Italy, when vast inhabited area was contaminated with certain chemicals including the extremely toxic TCDD (2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p -dioxin) several fauna perished but for the earthworms that were alone able to survive. Earthworms which ngested TCDD contaminated soils were shown to bio-accumulate dioxin in their i tissues and concentrate it on average 14.5 fold (151). E. fetida was used as the test organisms for different soil contaminants and several reports indicated that E. fetida tolerated 1.5% crude oil (containing several toxic organic pollutants) and survived in this environment (129). Earthworms also tolerate high concentrations of heavy metals in the environment. The species Lumbricus terrestris was found to bio-accumulate in their tissues 90-180 mg lead (Pb)/gm of dry weight, while L. rubellus and D. rubida it was 2600 mg/gm and 7600 mg/gm of dry weight respectively (103). Ability to degrade most organic wastes rapidly into nutritive vermicompost: Researches into vermiculture have revealed that worms can feed upon wide variety of organic wastes and provides sustainable solution for total waste management (80; 112). The farm wastes, animal wastes, garden wastes from homes and parks, the sewage sludge from the municipal wastewater and water treatment plants, the wastewater sludge from paper pulp and cardboard industry, brewery and distillery, sericulture industry, vegetable oil factory, potato and corn chips manufacturing industry, sugarcane industry, guar gum industry, aromatic oil extraction industry, logging and carpentry industry offers excellent feed material for vermi-composting by earthworms. (59; 67; 68; 72; 81; 85; 89; 93; 109; 110; 114; 116; 119; 120; 157; 158; 159 ;173 ; 181 & 200). Even the ‘flyash’ (rich in nitrogen) from the coal power plants once considered as a ‘biohazard’ can be composted by earthworms and converted into organic faertilizer. (153). The worms digest the waste and convert a good part of it into mineral rich nutritive vermicompost which is much superior to all the conventional composts. Livestock rearing waste such as cattle dung, pig and chicken excreta makes excellent feedstock for earthworms. Animal excreta containing excessive nitrogen component may require mixing of carbon rich 8 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 bulking agents (straw, saw dust, dried leaves and grasses, shredded paper waste etc.) to maintain proper C/N ratio. Paunch waste materials (gut contents of slaughtered ruminants) from abattoir also make good feedstock for earthworms. The worms secrete enzymes proteases, lipases, amylases, cellulases and chitinases in their gizzard and intestine which bring about rapid biochemical conversion of the cellulosic and the proteinaceous materials in the waste organics. Earthworms convert cellulose into its food value faster than proteins and other carbohydrates. They ingest the cellulose, pass it through its intestine, adjust the pH of the digested (degraded) materials, cull the unwanted microorganisms and then deposit the processed cellulosic materials mixed with minerals and microbes as aggregates called ‘vermicasts’ in the soil (57). Most earthworms consume, at the best, half their body weight of organics in the waste in a day. Eisenia fetida is reported to consume organic matter at the rate equal to their body weight every day (205). Earthworm participation enhances natural biodegradation and decomposition of organic waste from 60 to 80%. Study indicates that given the optimum conditions of temperature (20-30 °C) and moisture (60-70%), about 5 kg of worms (numbering approx.10,000) can vermiprocess 1 ton of waste into vermi-compost in just 30 days (205). Upon vermi-composting the volume of solid waste is significantly reduced from approximately 1 cum to 0.5 cum of vermi-compost. Vermicompost is a nutritive ‘organic fertilizer’ rich in NKP (nitrogen 2 -3%, potassium 1.85-2.25% and phosphorus 1.55-2.25%), micronutrients, beneficial soil microbes like ‘nitrogen-fixing bacteria’ and ‘mycorrhizal fungi’ & plant growth hormones. Kale & Bano (108) reports as high a 7.37% nitrogen (N) and s 19.58% phosphorus as P2O 5 in worms vermicast. They are scientifically proving as ‘miracle plant growth promoters’ much superior to conventional composts and chemical fertilizers (175; 176 & 177). Reinforce decomposer microbes to promote rapid waste degradation: Earthworms promotes the growth of ‘beneficial decomposer aerobic bacteria’ in waste biomass and this they do by several ways-by improving ‘aeration’ through burrowing actions, by releasing ‘chemical mediators’ along their g t and body surface and u indirectly through protozoa which they activate, which act at low concentrations on microbial metabolism, as vitamins or as chemical catalysts (38). Earthworms hosts millions of decomposer (biodegrader) microbes in their gut (as they devour on them) and excrete them in soil along with nutrients nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in their excreta (169). The nutrients N & P are further used by the microbes for multiplication and vigorous action. Edward and Fletcher (67) showed that the number of bacteria and ‘actinomycetes’ contained in the ingested material increased up to 1000 fold while passing through the gut. A population of worms numbering about 15,000 will in turn foster a microbial population of billions of millions. (123). Singleton (169) studied the bacterial flora associated with the intestine and vermicasts of the earthworms and found species like Pseudomonas, Mucor, Paenibacillus, Azoarcus, Burkholderia, Spiroplasm, Acaligenes and Acidobacterium which has potential to degrade several categories of organics . Acaligenes can even degrade PCBs and Mucor can degrade dieldrin. Under favorable conditions, earthworms and microorganisms act ‘symbiotically & synergistically’ to accelerate and enhance the decomposition of the organic matter in the waste. It is the microorganisms which break down the cellulose in the food waste, grass clippings and the leaves from garden wastes (123). Ability to kill pathogens & disinfect its surroundings: The earthworms release coelomic fluids that have antibacterial properties and destroy all pathogens in the media in which it inhabits (137). They also selectively devour the protozoa, bacteria and fungus as food. They seems to realize instinctively that anaerobic bacteria and fungi are undesirable (causing rotting and foul odor) and so feed upon them preferentially. They also produce ‘antibiotics’ and kills the pathogenic organisms in their surroundings. This attribute of earthworms is very useful in composting of waste where the end-product becomes ‘disinfected’, ‘odorless’ and free of harmful microbes. The removal of pathogens, faecal coliforms ( . coli), Salmonella spp., enteric viruses and helminth ova from E human waste appear to be much more rapid when they are processed by E. fetida. Of all E.coli and Salmonella are greatly reduced (23). Ability to bio-accumulate toxic chemicals and detoxify the medium in which it lives: Several studies have found that earthworms effectively bio-accumulate or biodegrade several organic and inorganic chemicals 9 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 including ‘heavy metals’, ‘organochlorine pesticide’ and the lipophilic organic micropollutants like ‘polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons’ (PAHs) residues in the medium in which it inhabits. No farmlands in the world today where heavy use of agrochemicals were made in the wake of ‘green revolution’ are free of organic pesticides. Several studies have found definite relationship between ‘organochlorine pesticide’ residues in the soil and their amount in earthworms, with an average concentration factor (in earthworm tissues) of about 9 for all compounds and doses tested (103). The ability of heavy metals removal by earthworms is of particular significance while using vermicomposts made from urban solid wastes. Urban waste may contain considerable heavy metals and when processed by earthworms only that they can become free of heavy metals (106). Ability to tolerate & reduce soil salinity: Studies indicate that Esinea fetida can tolerate soils nearly half as salty as seawater i.e. 15 gm/kg of soil and also improve its biology and chemistry. (Average seawater salinity is around 35 g/L). Farmers at Phaltan in Satara district of Maharashtra, India, applied live earthworms to their sugarcane crop grown on saline soils irrigated by saline ground water. The yield was 125 tones/hectare of sugarcane and there was marked improvement in soil chemistry. Within a year there was 37% more nitrogen, 66% more phosphates and 10% more potash. The chloride content was less by 46%. Farmer in Sangli district of Maharashtra, India, grew grapes on eroded wastelands and applied vermicasting @ 5 tones/hectare. The grape harvest was normal with improvement in quality, taste and shelf life. Soil analysis showed that within one year pH came down from 8.3 to 6.9 and the value of potash increased from 62.5 kg/ha to 800 kg/ha. There was also marked improvement in the nutritional quality of the grape fruits (134 & 209). EARTHWORMS CAN IMPROVE SOIL FERTILITY & PROMOTE CROP PRODUCTIVITY WITHOUT RECOURSE TO AGRO-CHEMICALS: HARBINGERS OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE Worms improves total physical, chemical & biological quality of soil: Earthworms are found in wide range of soils representing 60-80% of the total soil biomass. Significantly, the worms lead to total improvement in the quality of soil and land where they inhabit and also enhance total plant growth and crop productivity (43; 54; 61; 91; 100; 101; 107; 117; 118; 126; 141; 149; 164; 185; 211 & 212). One acre of fertile land may contain more than 50, 000 earthworms of diverse species. They play major role in ‘renewing soil fertility’ by continuously burrowing, ingesting, turning, mixing, aerating and improving drainage of the soil and are regarded as ‘biological indicator’ of soil fertility (75 & 76). Even they have been introduced into reclaimed soils successfully to restore its fertility (41 & 174). Earthworm activity is so prolific that, on average, 12 tonnes/ha/year soil or organic matter is ingested by this population, leading to upturning of 18 tons of soil/year and world over at this rate it may mean a 2 inch humus layer over the globe (35). Earthworms can contribute between 20 to 40 kg nitrogen/ha/year in soil, in addition to other mineral nutrients and plant growth regulators and increase soil fertility and plant growth by 30-200% (58). After Darwin published his observations in 1837 on the earthworms about how it mixed plant residues & dung with the farm soil and its grinding action in the gut to comminute soil aggregates and expose fresh soil surfaces to microbial attacks many people started studying about the role of worms in soil improvement and crop production. Worms select those parts of the soil which are rich in organic matter. This was studied and reported by several authors since (30; 31; 35; 58; 126; 133; 142; 190; 191; 192 & 193). Earthworms when present in soil inevitably work as ‘soil conditioner’ to improve its physical, chemical and biological properties and also its nutritive value for healthy plant growth. This they do by soil fragmentation and breakdown of organic m atter in soil & release of nutrients, secretion of plant growth hormones, proliferation of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, increasing biological resistance in crop plants and all these worm activities contribute to improved crop productivity. Worms swallow large amount of soil with organics (microbes, plant & animal debris) everyday, grind them in their gizzard and digest them in their intestine with aid of enzymes. Only 5-10 percent of the chemically digested and ingested material is absorbed into the body and the rest is excreted out in the form of fine mucus coated granular aggregates called ‘vermicastings’ which are rich in NKP (nitrates, phosphates and potash), micronutrients and beneficial soil microbes (35). The organic matter in the soil undergo 10 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 ‘humification’ in the worm intestine in which the large organic particles are converted into a complex amorphous colloid containing ‘phenolic’ materials. About one-fourth of the organic matter is converted into humus. The humic acid has very good impact on plant growth (19). The colloidal humus acts as ‘slow release fertilizer’ in the soil (190). Worms provide high levels of bio-available nutrients in balanced form for plants: Earthworms excretion (vermicastings) in soil carry ammonia, nitrates, nitrogen, phosphorus, magnesium and other micronutrients and nitrogen fixing microbes. Earthworm mix organic and inorganic, living and nonliving elements indiscriminately and smear the milieu with mucus, urine and faeces to form balanced plant nutrient. They produce ‘ext ra soil nutrients’ from grinding rock particles and by enhancing atmospheric nitrogen fixation. They mineralize the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in the waste to make it bio-available to plants as nutrients (46). They ingest nitrogen from the waste and e xcrete it in the mineral form as ammonium and muco-proteins. The nitrogenous waste excreted by the nephridia of the worms is plant-available as it is mostly urea and ammonia. The ammonium in the soil is bio-transformed into nitrates. What is more significant is that it is ‘organic nitrogen’ that do not accumulate in food products in a concentration that accumulates in food grown on chemical nitrogen (urea) posing health risk. Nitrogen (N) contribution to soil: Barley & Jennings (31) reported that worms significantly contribute nitrogen (N) contents to soil by over 85%. When the young growing worms were fed with a soil containing finely ground leaf litter (containing nitrogen in non-bioavailable forms for plants), about 6% of the ingested nitrogen was excreted in bio-available forms for the plants. After 28 weeks soil with living worms contained 75 ppm of nitrate nitrogen, compared with the control soil which contained 45 ppm. Patil (136) found that earthworm recycle nitrogen in the soil in very short time a the quantity of nitrogen recycled is significant ranging from 20 to 200 nd kg N/ha/year. Worms increase nitrogen levels in soil by adding their metabolic & excretory products (vermicast), mucus, body fluid, enzymes and decaying tissues of dead worms. They also contribute nitrogen indirectly through fragmentation of organic materials and grazing on soil microorganisms (7; 52; 55 & 135; 155). Earthworms tissues contains about 10% N on a dry weight basis. Whalen (208) reported that living worms release nitrogen from their bodies and after death it is rapidly decomposed releasing all nitrogen into the soil. Christensen (53) found that 50% of the N in dead worm tissues was mineralized in 7 days while Satchell (151 & 152) found it to be 70% in 10-20 days and the N was converted to NO3-N which is bio-available form on nitrogen to crop roots. The release of mineral N after death of earthworms could be significant since worm biomass can turn over up to 3 times a year in farm soil. Study estimated direct flux of nitrogen through earthworm biomass in farm soils (agro-ecosystems) ranging from 10-74 kg N/ha/year. Stinner (179), estimated that total N uptake by corn crops in organic and inorganic fertilized farm soils was about 90 kg N/ha/year. Phosphorus (P) contribution to soil: It is well established that worm casts are richer in ‘inorganic phosphorus compounds’ extractable in water than the surface soil ingested. Graff (88) and Sharpley & Syers (162) found that exchangeable phosphorus (P) measured isotopically was three (3) times greater in worms vermicasts than in the underlying soils. Lee (118) suggests that the passage of organic matter through the gut of worm results in phosphorus (P) converted to forms which are more bio-available to plants. This is done partly by worm’s gut enzyme ‘phosphatases’ and partly by the release of phosphate solubilizing microorganisms in the worm cast (152). Table 2: Effect of earthworm (E. fetida) activity on phosphorus mineralization in soil (µg/gram dry weight and difference from control) Phosphorus (P) Control Water-soluble P 11.14 19.08 (x 1.71) Total extractable P 251.72 311.90 (x 1.24) Extractable Inorganic P 177.94 244.76 (x 1.38) Source: Satchell and Martin (1984) 11 Culture residues (Relative increase) Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 Worms stimulate high levels of beneficial and biologically active soil microbes: Earthworms hosts millions of beneficial microbes (including the nitrogen fixers) in their gut and excrete them in soil along with nutrients nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in their excreta i.e. vermicast. The nutrients N & P and the intestinal mucus excreted by worms are further used by the microbes for multiplication and vigorous soil remediation and fertility improvement action (38; 45; 118 & 151). Teotia (187) reported bacterial count of 32 million per gram in fresh vermicast compared to 6-9 million per gram in the surrounding soil. The mycorrhizal fungi stimulated and encouraged by the earthworms transfer phosphorus by increasing solubilisation of mineral phosphate by the enzyme phosphatase. Morgan & Burrows (123), showed that the number of beneficial bacteria and ‘actinomycetes’ contained in the ingested material increased up to 1000 fold while passing through the gut. A population of worms numbering about 15,000 will in turn foster a microbial population in billions in soil (151). Worms secrete plant growth hormones: Neilson (127) reported the presence of ‘plant growth substances’ in earthworms. Tomati (191 & 192) had also reported that worm worked soil & compost contained growth promoting hormone ‘auxins’ and flowering hormone ‘gibberlins’ secreted by earthworms. Worms protects plants against various pests and diseases: There has been considerable evidence in recent years regarding the ability of worms to protect plants against various pests and diseases either by suppressing or repelling them or by inducing biological resistance in plants to fight them or by killing them through pesticidal action (3). The actinomycetes fungus excreted by the earthworms in their vermicast produce chemicals that kill parasitic fungi such as Pythium and Fusarium. (74). VERMIWASH: THE NUTRITIVE LIQUID FILTERED THROUGH BODY OF WORMS PROMOTE GROWTH AND WORKS AS ORGANIC PESTICIDES The brownish-red liquid which collects in all vermculture practices should be collected. This liquid partially comes from the body of earthworms (as worm’s body contain plenty of water) and is rich in amino acids, vitamins, nutrients like nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, zinc, calcium, iron and copper and some growth hormones like ‘auxins’, ‘cytokinins’. It also contains plenty of nitrogen fixing and phosphate solubilising bacteria (nitrosomonas, nitrobacter and actinomycetes). Farmers from Bihar in North India reported growth promoting and pesticidal properties of this liquid. They used it on brinjal and tomato with excellent results. The plants were healthy and bore bigger fruits with unique shine over it. Spray of vermiwash effectively controlled all incidences of pests and diseases, significantly reduced the use of chemical pesticides and insecticides on vegetable crops and the products were significantly different from others with high market value. These farmers are using vermicompost and vermiwash in all their crops since last 4 years completely giving up the use of chemical fertilizers & pesticides. (Personal Communication With Farmers in India). VERMICULTURE: A GLOBAL MOVEMENT The movement was started in the middle of 20th century and the first serious experiments for management of municipal/industrial organic wastes were established in Holland in 1970 and subsequently in England and Canada. Later vermiculture were followed in USA, Italy, Philippines, Thailand, China, Korea, Japan, Brazil, France, Australia and Israel (71 & 72). However, the farmers all over the world have been using worms for composting their farm waste and improving farm soil fertility since long time. In UK, large 1000 mt vermi-composting plants have been erected in Wales (82). The American Earthworm Technology Company started a 'vermi-composting farm' in 1978-79 with 500 t/month of vermicompost production (39 & 40). Hartenstein & Bisesi (97) reported on the management of sewage sludge and effluents from intensively housed livestock by vermiculture in USA. Japan imported 3000 mt of earthworms from the USA during the period 1985-87 for cellulose waste degradation (111). The Aoka Sangyo Co. Ltd., has three 1000 t/month plants processing waste from paper pulp and the food industry (111). This produces 400 ton of vermicompost and 10 ton of live earthworms per month. The Toyhira Seiden Kogyo Co. of Japan is using rice 12 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 straw, municipal sludge, sawdust and paper waste for vermicomposting involving 20 plants which in total produces 2-3 thousands tons of vermicompost per month (72). In Italy, vermiculture is used to biodegrade municipal and paper mill sludge. Aerobic and anaerobic sludge are mixed and aerated for more than 15 days and in 5000 cum of sludge 5 kg of earthworms are added. In about 8 months the hazardous sludge is converted into nutritive vermicompost. In France, 20 tons of mixed household wastes are being vermi-composted everyday using 1000 to 2000 million red tiger worms (Elsenia andrei ) in earthworm tanks. (205). Rideau Regional Hospital in Ontario, Canada, vermi-compost 375-400 kg of wet organics mainly food waste everyday. The worm feed is prepared by mixing shredded newspaper with the food waste (205). In Wilson, North Carolina, U.S., more than 5 tons of pig manure (excreta) is being vermi-composted every week (39). In New Zealand, Envirofert is a large vermicomposting company operating in over 70 acre site in Auckland converting thousands of tons of green organic waste every year into high quality compost (www.envirofert.co.nz). Vermiculture is being practiced and propagated on large scale in Australia too as a part of the 'Urban Agriculture Development Program' (to convert all the municipal urban wastes into compost for local food production) and ‘Diverting Waste from Landfills Program’ (for reducing landfills in Australia). CONCLUSIONS AND REMARKS Earthworms act as ‘Ecosystem Engineer’ converting a product of ‘negative’ economic & environmental value i.e. ‘waste’ into a product of ‘highly positive’ economic & environmental values i.e. ‘highly n utritive organic fertilizer’ (brown gold) and ‘safe food’ (green gold). Vermiculture can maintain the global ‘human sustainability cycle’-producing food back from food & farm wastes (104; 105 & 168). Earthworms and its metabolic products (vermicompost) may work as the ‘driving force’ in sustainable food production while improving soil health and fertility and protecting crop plants from pests and diseases. They can completely ‘replace’ the use of agrochemicals in crop production. This is what is being termed as ‘sustainable agriculture’. (170 & 172). Tribute to the earthworms: Earthworms are justifying the beliefs and fulfilling the dreams of the great visionary scientist Sir Charles Darwin as ‘unheralded soldiers’ of mankind and ‘friend of farmer’s. Darwin wrote a book in which he emphasized that ‘there may not be any other creature in world that has played so important a role in the history of life on earth’. One of the leading authorities on earthworms and vermiculture studies Dr. Anatoly Igonin of Russia has said: ‘Nobody and nothing can be compared with earthworms and their positive influence on the whole living Nature. They create soil and everything that lives in it. They are the most numerous animals on Earth and the main creatures converting all organic matter into soil humus providing soil’s fertility and biosphere’s functions: disinfecting, neutralizing, protective and productive’. 13 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 Earthworms Vermicompost: A Powerful Crop Nutrient over the Conventional Compost & Protective Soil Conditioner against the Destructive Chemical Fertilizers for Food Safety and Security Key words: Chemical fertilizers destructive to soils vermicompost protective chemical fertilizers decrease natural soil fertility composts a slow-release organic fertilizer build up and improve soil fertility earthworms vermicompost promote growth and protect plants vermicompost richer in nkp and micronutrients and several times powerful growth promoter over conventional composts • • • • • • • • • INTRODUCTION: VERMICOMPOST-THE MIRACLE PLANT GROWTH PROMOTER Earthworms vermicompost is proving to be highly nutritive ‘organic fertilizer’ and more powerful ‘growth promoter’ over the conventional composts and a ‘protective’ farm input (increasing the physical, chemical & biological properties of soil, restoring & improving its natural fertility) against the ‘destructive’ chemical fertilizers which has destroyed the soil properties and decreased its natural fertility over the years. Vermicompost is rich in NKP (nitrogen 2 -3%, potassium 1.85-2.25% and phosphorus 1.55-2.25%), micronutrients, beneficial soil microbes and also contain ‘plant growth hormones & enzymes’. It is scientifically proving as ‘miracle growth promoter & also plant protector’ from pests and diseases. Vermicompost retains nutrients for long time and while the conventional compost fails to deliver the required amount of macro and micronutrients including the vital NKP to plants in shorter time, the vermicompost does. PROTECTIVE COMPOST VERSUS THE DESTRUCTIVE CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS Chemical fertilizers which ushered the ‘green revolution’ in the 1950-60’s came as a ‘mixed blessing’ for mankind. It boosted food productivity, but at the cost of environment & society. It dramatically increased the ‘quantity’ of the food produced but decreased its ‘nutritional quality’ and also the ‘soil fertility’ over the years. It killed the beneficial soil organisms which help in renewing natural fertility. It also impaired the power of ‘biological resistance’ in crops making them more susceptible to pests & diseases. Over the years it has worked like a ‘slow poison’ for the soil with a serious ‘withdrawal symptoms’. The excessive use of ‘nitrogenous fertilizer’ (urea) has also led to increase in the level of ‘inorganic nitrogen’ content in groundwater (through leaching effects) and in the human food with grave consequences for the human health. Chemically grown foods have adversely affected human health. Organic farming systems with the aid of various nutrients of biological origin such as compost are thought to be the answer for the ‘food safety and farm security’ in future. Among them ‘composts’ made from biodegradation of organics of MSW (municipal solid waste) which is being generated in huge amount every day all over the world are most important. The organic fraction of the MSW (about 70-80%) containing plenty of nitrogen (N), potash (K) and phosphorus (P) is a good source of macro and micronutrients for the soil. Composts also contain plenty of ‘beneficial soil microbes’ which help in ‘soil regeneration’ & ‘fertility improvement’ and protect them from degradation while also promoting growth in plants (60 & 207). Composts also protect plants from pests and diseases (99 & 156). Properties of farm soil using compost vis-a-vis chemical fertilizers: Suhane (182) studied the chemical and biological properties of soil under organic farming (using various types of composts) and chemical farming (using chemical fertilizers-urea (N), phosphates (P) and potash (K)). Results are given in Table 1. All compost (including vermicompost), are produced from some ‘waste materials’ of society which is converted into a ‘valuable resource’. It is like ‘killing two birds in one shot’. More significant is that it is of biological origin i.e. a ‘renewable resource’ and will be readily available to mankind in future. Whereas, chemical fertilizers are made from petroleum products which are ‘non-renewable’ and a ‘depleting’ resource. While in the use of compost the environment is ‘benefited’ at all stages-from production (salvaging waste & 14 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (S): 01-55, 2009 Table 1: Farm soil properties under organic farming and chemical farming Chemical and biological properties of soil 1) Availability of nitrogen (kg/ha) 2) Availability of phosphorus (kg/ha) 3) Availability of potash (kg/ha) 4) Azatobacter (1000/gm of soil) 5) Phospho bacteria (100,000/kg of soil) 6) Carbonic biomass (mg/kg of soil) Organic farming (Use of composts) 256.0 50.5 489.5 11.7 8.8 273.0 Chemical farming (Use of chemical fertilizers) 185.0 28.5 426.5 0.8 3.2 217.0 Source: Suhane (2007) diverting them from landfills and reducing greenhouse gases) to application in farms (adding beneficial microbes to soil & improving biochemical properties), in the use of chemical fertilizers the environment is ‘harmed’ at all stages-from procurement of raw materials from petroleum industries to production in factories (generating huge amount of chemical wastes and pollutants) and application in farms (adversely affecting beneficial soil microorganisms and soil chemistry). COMPOSTS: THE MIRACLE PLANT GROWTH PROMOTER & PROTECTOR Composts are aerobically decomposed products of organic wastes such as the cattle dung and animal droppings, farm and forest wastes and the municipal solid wastes (MSW). Bombatkar (42) called them as ‘miracle’ for plant growth. They supply balanced nutrients to plant roots and stimulate growth; increase organic matter content of the soil including the ‘humic substances’ that affect nutrient accumulation and promote root growth (49 & 165). They in fact improve the total physical and chemical properties of the soil. They also add useful micro-organisms to the