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The Geology of Burma (Myanmar): An Annotated Bibliography of Burma’s Geology, Geography and Earth Science. By R. Lee Hadden Topographic Engineering Center US Army Corps of Engineers 7701 Telegraph Road Alexandria, Virginia 22315 UNCLASSIFIED / UNLIMITED September 2008 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing this collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden to Department of Defense, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports (0704-0188), 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302. Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to any penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number. PLEASE DO NOT RETURN YOUR FORM TO THE ABOVE ADDRESS. 1. REPORT 2. REPORT TYPE: Bibliography DATE 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE: The Geology of Burma (Myanmar): An Annotated Bibliography of Burma’s Geology, Geography and Earth Science. 6. AUTHOR(S) HADDEN, Robert Lee 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) US Army Corps of Engineers Topographic Engineering Center ATTN: CEERD-TO-I 7701 Telegraph Road Alexandria, VA 22315-3864 9. SPONSORING / MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) Geospatial Library 7701 Telegraph Road Alexandria, VA 22315-3864 12. DISTRIBUTION / AVAILABILITY STATEMENT Unclassified/Unlimited 13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES: 14. ABSTRACT A bibliography on Burma prepared by the Topographic Engineering Center (TEC) to assist with humanitarian efforts offered by the US Government after the devastating Cyclone Nargis hit Burma on May 2, 2008. As such, this bibliography covers items of interest to disaster engineers and emergency planners, including citations on topography, transportation, water, medical concerns, and security. 15. SUBJECT TERMS: Burma. Climate. Earth Sciences. Forests. Geology. Geography. Groundwater. Hydrology. Maps. Meteorology. Mining. Myanmar. Soils. Surface-water. Transportation. Water. 16. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF: Unclassified/Unlimited a. REPORT b. ABSTRACT 17. LIMITATION 18. NUMBER OF PAGES 312 OF ABSTRACT c. THIS PAGE Unclassified/Unlimited September 2008 Unlimited 2 Burma The Geology of Burma (Myanmar): An Annotated Bibliography of Burma’s Geology, Geography and Earth Science By R. Lee Hadden Topographic Engineering Center (TEC) Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC) 7701 Telegraph Road Alexandria, VA 22315 September 2008 Robert.L.Hadden@us.army.mil Preface This bibliography was produced quickly by the Topographic Engineering Center (See: http://tec.army.mil/Burma/index.html) in response to the humanitarian crisis caused by the Cyclone Nargis which hit Burma in May 2, 2008. The cyclone packed winds of 215 km/hr (135mph) and with very heavy rains. The cyclone made landfall in Burma as a Category 4 cyclone, with catastrophic results, with estimates of 146,000 fatalities, and thousands more people missing, injured and homeless. These two images below are provided from NASA, and show the overwhelming amount of damage caused by Cyclone Nargis to Burma. Flood water can be difficult to see in photo-like satellite images, particularly when the water is muddy. This pair of images from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite uses a combination of visible and infrared light to make the floodwaters obvious to the viewer. Water is blue or nearly black, vegetation is bright green, bare ground is tan, and the clouds are white or light blue. On April 15, 2008 (the top image), rivers and lakes are sharply defined against a backdrop of vegetation and fallow agricultural land. The Irrawaddy River flows south through the left-hand side of the image, splitting into numerous distributaries known as the Mouths of the Irrawaddy. The wetlands near the shore are a deep blue green. Cyclone Nargis came ashore across the Mouths of the Irrawaddy and followed the coastline northeast. The entire coastal plain of Burma is flooded in the May 5 image (the bottom image). The fallow agricultural areas appear to have been especially hard hit. For example, Yangôn (population over 4 million) is almost completely surrounded by floods. Several large cities (population 100,000–500,000) are in the affected area. Muddy runoff colors the Gulf of Martaban turquoise. The high-resolution image provided above is at MODIS’ maximum spatial resolution (level of detail) of 250 meters per pixel. The MODIS Rapid Response Team provides twice-daily images of the region in additional resolutions and formats, including photo-like natural color. Bibliography of Burman Earth Science Relief efforts were slowed or non-existent as the Burmese military rulers initially refused aid from outside the country. By May 12-20, 2008, the US Department of Defense coordinated $1.2 million dollars of relief supplies on 36 USAF C-130 flights. The relief supplies would provide needed help to some 113,000 storm victims. Much more aid was needed. President George Bush also ordered the Essex group, composed of the USS Essex, the USS Juneau, the USS Harpers Ferry, and elements of the Third Marine September 2008 4 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science Expeditionary Force (III MEF), to stand by offshore with relief supplies, disaster engineering expertise and medical assistance. The Topographic Engineering Center (TEC) has scanned a number of geological and hydrological maps of Burma to assist the disaster planners on these ships and elsewhere. This data is used to select locations for supply dumps, emergency hospital locations, sanitation and clean water supplies. Other data on transportation and terrain helped with the airlifting of supplies, evacuating of the injured, and the prevention of bottlenecks in air, land and water traffic. The government of Burma refused permission for the US Navy and Marines to aid the survivors. The Essex group stood off the coast of Burma, waiting for permission to lend its support of supplies, helicopters and manpower, but it was never given. Although the humanitarian aid was refused, the TEC webpage has also helped civilian relief agencies in their efforts. The data is available around the world, and the US government, the United Nations and a number of non-governmental organizations have made use of this data in their humanitarian relief efforts. Copyrighted and sensitive materials have been placed behind the PKI site, and are available only to US government civilian and military personnel with CAC access. However, most of the information is from open sources, and thus is available to anyone. Special thanks are given to all those people outside of the Topographic Engineering Center who helped in this emergency project. They include the Reference Staff of the US Geological Survey Library who replied promptly to our requests and made their services so accessible (http://library.usgs.gov/); the public services staff of the Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) who responded so quickly to our requests, and bent over backwards to make their information available online to the public (http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/index.html); the Reference Staff of the Geography and Map Division, The Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/) and to Mr. Willie Sayeed of RefWorks for the use of their services in putting together and updating the bibliography of citations from so many different electronic and manual resources so quickly (www.RefWorks.com). Introduction The Land: The country is known by several names: the conventional long form: “Union of Burma”; conventional short form: “Burma”; local long form: “Pyidaungzu Myanma Naingngandaw” (translated by the US Government as “Union of Myanma” and by the Burmese as “Union of Myanmar”); local short form: “Myanma Naingngandaw”; former: “Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma”. Note: since 1989 the military authorities in Burma have promoted the name Myanmar as a conventional name for their state; this decision was not approved by any sitting legislature in Burma, and the US Government did not adopt the name, which is a derivative of the Burmese short-form name Myanma Naingngandaw. The capital city is Rangoon (Yangon), with geographic coordinates: 16 48 N, 96 09 E. Strategically, Burma holds a strategic location near major Indian Ocean shipping lanes. September 2008 5 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science The time difference: UTC+6.5 (11.5 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time). Note: Nay Pyi Taw is actually the administrative capital. There are seven administrative division (taing-myar, singular - taing) and 7 states (pyi ne-myar, singular - pyi ne). The divisions are: Ayeyarwady, Bago, Magway, Mandalay, Sagaing, Tanintharyi, Yangon. The seven states are: Chin, Kachin, Kayah, Kayin, Mon, Rakhine and Shan. Burma lies in Southeastern Asia, bordering the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal, between Bangladesh and Thailand. It is slightly smaller in land area than Texas, and has a total area of 678,500 sq km. Of this, land covers 657,740 sq km, and water covers 20,760 sq km. The national boundaries total: 5,876 km, with border countries boundaries of: Bangladesh at 193 km; China at 2,185 km; India at 1,463 km; Laos at 235 km and Thailand with a shared boundary of 1,800 km. There is also 1,930 km of coastline. The Physical Features of Burma1 Geology, Topology and Terrain As a country, Burma slopes downward in elevation from the north to the south, and is naturally divided into “Upper Burma” and “Lower Burma”. The terrain is made up of central lowlands ringed by steep, rugged highlands. In the north, the Hengduan Shan mountains form the border with China. Mount Hkakabo Razi, located in the Kachin State, is at an elevation of 5,881 m (19,295 ft), and is the highest point in Burma. The mountain ranges in Burma generally run from north to south as well. Three of these mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the Shan Plateau, all exist within Burma, and all of these ranges run from north-to-south from the Himalayas. These mountain chains also divide Burma's three main river systems, which are the Irrawaddy (aka Ayeyarwady), the Salween (aka Thanlwin), and the Sittang rivers. Burma's longest river, the Irrawaddy River, is nearly 2,170 kilometers (1,348 mi) long, and it flows through the country and into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains. The majority of Burma's population lives in the Irrawaddy valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau. As a whole, Burma can be divided into five physiographic regions: the northern mountains; the western ranges; the eastern plateau; the central basin and lowlands, and finally the coastal plains. The northern mountain region consists of a series of ranges that form a geological complex at Mount Hkakabo. In terms of plate tectonics, this geological complex or “geologic knot” marks the northeastern limit of the encroaching Indian-Australian Plate. The Indian-Australian Plate has been colliding with the southern edge of the Eurasian Plate for roughly the past 50 million years, and has been thrusting up the mountain ranges 1 The data in this introductory section are collected from a number of open literature and common knowledge publications and resources, such as various almanacs, AGI’s “Glossary of Geology”, geographical dictionaries and gazetteers; encyclopedias such as the World Survey of Climatology, the Encyclopedia Britannica, Encarta, Water Encyclopedia, etc.; open source government publications and websites from the US Department of State, the Library of Congress, the Defense Technical Information Center, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN and others; the CIA Factbook, and several different reports, articles and books on Burma from federal government geological and geographical resources. September 2008 6 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science of Burma and the regions beyond. This northern mountain physiographic region contains the sources of several of Asia’s great rivers, including the Irrawaddy, which rises and flows wholly within Burma, and the Salween, which rises to the north in China. The upper courses of these rivers all flow through deep gorges within a short distance of each other, separated by steep, sheer peaks. Jade and other minerals are mined in these northern mountains. The western range region traverses the entire western side of Burma, from the northern mountains to the southern tip of the Rakhine (Arakan) Peninsula, where they run under the sea and then reappear above the ocean as the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, territories of India. The mountains’ average elevation is about 1,800 meters (6,000 feet), although some peaks rise in height to 3,000 meters (10,000 feet) or higher. These mountains consist of old crystalline rocks surrounded by hard, tightly folded sedimentary rocks on either side. From north to south, the Patkai Range, the Naga Hills, and the Chin Hills form the borders between India and Burma. To the south of these are the Rakhine Mountains (Arakan Mountains), which lie entirely within Burma and separate the coastal strip from the central basin. Occupying the eastern half of the country, the Shan Plateau is deeply dissected, with an average elevation of about 900 meters (3,000 feet). The Shan Plateau to the east rises abruptly from the central basin, often in a single step of some 600 meters (2,000 feet). Because of the geology of this region, rubies and sapphires have been mined in the northern Shan Plateau since pre-colonial times. Burma’s rulers depend on sales of these precious stones such as sapphires, pearls and jade to fund their regime. Rubies are the biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue. Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems. Burma's “Valley of Rubies”, in the mountainous Mogok area, about 200 km (125 miles) north of Mandalay, and is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue sapphires The Shan Plateau was formed during the Mesozoic Era, some 248 to 65 million years ago, and thus is a much older geologic feature than the western mountains. But the Shan Plateau also shows more-recent and intensive folding than the western mountains, with north-south longitudinal ranges rising steeply to elevations of 1,800 to 2,600 meters (6,000 to 8,600 feet) above the plateau surface. Northward, the plateau merges into the northern mountains, and southward it continues into the Dawna Range and to the peninsular Tenasserim Mountains (aka Tanintharyi Mountains), each a series of parallel ranges with narrow valleys. The central basin and lowlands, lying between the Rakhine Mountains and the Shan Plateau, are structurally connected with the folding of the western ranges. The basin was deeply excavated by the predecessors of the Irrawaddy, Chindwin, and Sittang rivers; the valleys are now occupied by these rivers, which cover the ancient soft sandstones, shales, and clays with their alluvial deposits. The Basin of the Irrawaddy, with its tributaries the Chindwin, Shweli, and Myitnge rivers, occupies most of Burma. In the delta regions formed by the Irrawaddy and Sittang rivers, the landscape is absolutely flat, and the monotony is relieved only by a few blocks of erosion-resistant rocks that are never more than 18 meters (60 feet) high. The basin is divided into two unequal parts, the larger Irrawaddy valley and the smaller Sittang valley. Between these two valleys are the Bago Mountains. In the centre of the basin and also structurally connected with the Bago Mountains and their northern September 2008 7 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science extension, is a line of extinct volcanoes with small crater lakes and eroded cones. The largest of these eroded volcanic cones is Popa Hill, at 1,518 meters (4,981 feet). The coastal areas consist of the narrow Rakhine and Tenasserim plains, which are backed by the higher ranges of the Rakhine and Tenasserim mountains. These coastal regions are fringed with numerous islands of varying sizes. As to economic geology, Burma is rich in certain minerals, including metal ores, petroleum, and natural gas. Deposits of silver, lead, zinc, and gold are concentrated in the northern Shan Plateau; tin and tungsten in the Tenasserim region, and barite around the town of Maymyo in the central basin. Copper mining at the town of Monywa began in the early 1980s and has been growing, despite intermittent setbacks caused by shortages of fuel and supplies as well as by economic sanctions imposed by foreign governments. Large-scale exploitation of Burma’s mineral deposits began in the mid-1970s. Although production generally has been increasing since the late 20th century, mining accounts for only a tiny fraction of the country’s GDP and a comparable portion of the workforce. The country also has significant deposits of precious and semi-precious stones. Burmese rubies are internationally known for their deep color and quality. The country also produces smaller quantities of spinels2, diamonds, and other gemstones. Weather and Climate Although Burma is located in the monsoon region of Asia, its climate is greatly modified by its geographic position and its topographical relief. The cold air masses of Central Asia bring snow to the northern mountains for two months of the year, but this mountain wall prevents the cold air masses from moving farther south, so that Burma lies primarily under the influence of the monsoon winds. The north-south alignment of ranges and valleys also creates a pattern of alternate zones of heavy and scanty precipitation during both the northeast and southwest monsoons. Most of the precipitation, however, comes from the southwest monsoon. The west coast is subject to occasional tropical cyclones. Most of Burma lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. The Tropic of Cancer divides the country into two regions: the tropical south that covers two-thirds of the country, and the sub-tropical and temperate north, which is the remaining one-third of Burma. This causes two distinct seasons: the dry season from mid-October to Mid-May, and the wet season. There is a cooler spell during the wet season from December to February. The coastal regions and the western and southeastern ranges receive more than 200 inches (5,000 mm) of precipitation annually, while the delta regions receive about 100 inches (2,500 mm). The central region is not only positioned away from the sea but also on the drier, lee side- in the rain shadow- of the Rakhine Mountains. Precipitation gradually decreases northward until in the region’s dry zone it amounts to only 20 to 40 2 Probably named from the Latin word "spina", (meaning "thorn"), for its pointed (octahedral) crystals. Spinel is a hard mineral with octahedral crystals found in igneous and carbonate rocks. Spinel occurs typically as a contact metamorphism of impure dolomitic limestone, and less commonly as an accessory mineral of basic igneous rocks. Spinal also occurs in alluvial deposits. It consists essentially of alumina and magnesia (MgAl2O4), but commonly contains ferrous iron and sometimes also chromium. It is found in a variety of colors including blue, green, brown, black, and the valuable red variety which resembles a ruby, and is frequently used as a gemstone. September 2008 8 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science inches (500 to 1,000 mm) per year. The Shan Plateau, because of its elevation, usually receives between 75 and 80 inches (1,900 and 2,000 mm) annually. Monsoons As said above, Burma also lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (200 in) of rain annually. Annual rainfall in the southern delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (100 in), while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone, which is located in central Burma, is less than 1,000 mm (40 in). Burma has a monsoon climate with three main seasons: the hot period, the rainy season and the cooler period. The hottest period is between February and May, with little or no rain. At the end of this season, generally from March to April, the average monthly temperature reaches the upper 30°s C (lower 100°s F) in many parts of Burma. The average daily temperatures in Yangon (Rangoon) range from 24° to 36°C (75 to 97°F) in April, during the hot season. The climate of Burma and other countries in South and Southeast Asia follows a typical monsoon pattern. During the half of the year that the sun’s rays strike directly above the equator, the land mass of Asia is heated more than is the Indian Ocean. This draws moist hot air from over the ocean onto the land, bringing the rains of the southwest monsoon season. The Monsoon or Rainy season, also called “the hot and wet season”, exists usually from May to October. In Burma during this hot and wet season, rain usually falls nearly every day and sometimes all day long, and almost all of Burma’s annual rainfall occurs during this time. Rainfall during the monsoon season totals more than 500 cm (200 in) in upper Burma and over 250 cm (100 in) in lower Burma and Yangon (Rangoon). Central Burma, called the dry zone, and Mandalay, the chief city in this area, each receive about 76 cm (30 in). By July rains have brought the average temperature down to 29°C (84°F) in Mandalay and 27°C (81°F) in Yangon. Average annual rainfall during this season varies from about 5,000 mm (about 200 in) on the Tenasserim Coast to about 760 mm (about 30 in) at Mandalay. The country receives practically all its rainfall between mid-May and October, the period of the Southwest Monsoon. Annual precipitation in most of Upper Burma averages about 890 mm (about 35 in) and in Lower Burma about 5080 mm (about 200 in). The climate is tropical monsoon, with cloudy, rainy, hot and humid summers during the height of the southwest monsoon season, from June to September. When the tilt of the earth brings the direct sun rays south of the equator, the heating of the Indian Ocean draws the cooler dry air of the northeast monsoon from the highlands of Asia across the countries of South and Southeast Asia. The dry, cooler weather is from October/November to February. The hot, dry inter-monsoonal season is from mid-February to mid-May. The country is less cloudy, with scant rainfall and mild temperatures and lower humidity during the winter. This is the time of the cool, relatively dry northeast monsoon. In this cooler season, which runs from late October to mid-February, the temperature for January averages 25°C (77°F) in Yangon in Lower Burma and 20°C (68°F) in Mandalay in Upper Burma. The average daily temperatures in Yangon (Rangoon) range from 18° to 32°C (64-90°F) in January, during this cooler season. September 2008 9 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science In Burma, the mean annual temperature is 27°C (81°F). Although Burma is a tropical country, temperatures are not uniformly high throughout the year and throughout the country. The daily temperature range in Burma is greater than that temperature range in nearly all other parts of Southeast Asia. But no region in Burma has a continental type of climate (i.e., one characterized by large seasonal differences in average temperature). However, the average daily temperatures in Burma show little variation across the country, ranging from 26 °C to 28 °C (79 °F to 82 °F) between Sittwe in the Rakhine region, Yangon near the coast, and Mandalay in the northern part of the central basin. At Lashio, on the Shan Plateau, the average daily temperature is somewhat cooler, around 22 °C (71 °F). Elevation and distance from the sea affect temperature as well, and temperatures are generally lower in Burma’s mountainous regions. The northern regions of Burma are the coolest in the country, with average temperatures of 21°C (70°F). Thus the climate in upper Burma, especially at altitudes ranging from about 300 to 1,220 meters (1,000– 4,000 ft) of elevation, remains the most temperate throughout the year. Mandalay, in the centre of the dry zone, has some of the greatest daily temperature ranges, which span about 12°C (22°F) annually. Lower Burma, especially in the river delta and along the coastal regions, is the most humid part of the country. The coastal and delta regions have a mean annual temperature of 32°C (90°F). Surface and Ground Water Resources The water resources in Burma from 1999 include 1,045.6 cubic kilometers of total renewable water resources. Freshwater withdrawal for domestic, industrial and agricultural use, totals about 33.23 cu km/yr (1%/1%/98%); per capita water withdrawal in 2000 is about 658 cu m/yr. Environmentally, Burma suffers from deforestation and the industrial pollution of air, soil, and water. Also the inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease. Like the mountains, Burma’s main rivers run mainly from north to south. About three-fifths of the country’s surface is drained by the Irrawaddy River and its tributaries. The Rakhine coastal plains are drained by short, rapid streams, which, after forming broad river deltas, flow into the Bay of Bengal. The Tenasserim plains also are drained by short and rapid rivers, which enter the Gulf of Martaban. The Bassein River, also known as the Pathein River, drains the southern Rakhine Mountains. The Bassein River is about 257 kilometers (160 miles) long, and is chiefly a navigable outlet of the Irrawaddy River in the western part of the delta. Chindwin River: The great tributary of the Irrawaddy, the Chindwin, is about 1,158 km (750 miles) long, and drains the western region. The Chindwin River (Burmese: Chindwin Myit) is the largest tributary of the Irrawaddy River. It flows entirely within Burma and is known as “Ning-thi” to the Manipuris. The Chindwin rises in the Kumon Range in northern Burma, and flows northwest through the Hukawang Valley, then south along the Indian border and then southeast to the Irrawaddy River at Myingyan. The Chindwin is navigable for some 500 miles (800 km) from its confluence with the Irrawaddy below Mandalay to the confluence with the Uyu River, its chief tributary. September 2008 10 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science The Chindwin is served by regular river-going vessels up to the town of Homalin. Much of Chindwin's course lies in the within mountain ranges and forests. Due to the difficulty of access, much of the un-navigable river area remains unspoiled. The government of Burma recently created a very large (2,500 square mile) sanctuary for the endangered tiger within the Hukawng Valley. Teak forests within the drainage area have been a valuable resource since ancient times. The Hukawng Valley is known for its abundance of Burmese amber. Along the river, there are also deposits of jade, but the best jade is found in the region around the headwaters of the Uyu river. The Irrawaddy River: The country’s trade in rice is dependent on water transport, and the Irrawaddy River is the backbone of Burma’s transportation system. The Irrawaddy River starts in the North of Kachin State, at the confluence of the Mali Hka and N'Mai Hka rivers north of Myitkyina. The western Mali Hka branch arises from the end of the southern Himalayas, north of Putao, and, like the main river, is called “Nam Kiu” in the Shan language. The river then flows south through Burma to the Bay of Bengal through several mouths near Rangoon. Flowing entirely through Burma, the Irrawaddy is about 2,092 km long (1,300 miles), and it is navigable year round for nearly 1,000 miles (1,600 km) up to the junction with the Bhamo, the main tributary of the Chindwin River. The Irrawaddy River bisects the country from north to south and empties into the Indian Ocean through a nine-armed Irrawaddy Delta. In colonial times, before railways and automobiles, the river was known as the “Road to Mandalay”. Although navigable by large vessels to Myitkyina for a distance over 1,600 km from the ocean, the river is also full of sandbanks and islands, making such navigation difficult. For many years, the only bridge built to cross the Irrawaddy River was the Inwa Bridge. At the apex of its delta, the Irrawaddy breaks up into a vast network of streams and empties into the Andaman Sea through multiple mouths. The many streams of the Irrawaddy delta are navigable, and there is a regional system of inter-connecting canals. The Kaladan River is a river located in the west of the country around the Sittwe area. The Burmese government was working on a $500 million project in cooperation with India to attempt to facilitate river trade between the two nations. The Kaladan River trade will open up not only Mizoram but India's entire North East as a hinterland for the Burma port of Sittwe. Development of the river is also being negotiated with the Shwe Gas Project for economic enhancement. The Kok River originates in Shan State, Burma. It flows down and across the Burma-Thailand border to Mae Ai district, Chiang Mai Province. Most of its length is in Chiang Rai Province passing the districts Mueang Chiang Rai, Mae Chan, Chiang Saen and Wiang Chai. It becomes a tributary to the Mekong River in Chiang Saen district. The Mali River (Mali Hka) is a river that originates in northern Burma. It flows approximately 320 km, when it meets with the Nmai River and their confluence forms the Irrawaddy River. The Mekong is one of the world’s major rivers. It is the 11th-longest river in the world, and 7th longest in Asia, discharging 475 km3/114 cu mi of water annually. Its estimated length is 4,350 km (2,703 mi), and it drains an area of 795,000 km2 (307,000 square miles). From high in the Tibetan Plateau, the Mekong runs through China's Yunnan province, then through Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. All the other countries except China and Burma belong to the Mekong River September 2008 11 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science Commission. The extreme seasonal variations in flow and the presence of rapids and waterfalls have made navigation extremely difficult along the river. The Moei River is a tributary of the Salween River. It originates in Phop Phra district, Tak Province. Unlike most rivers in Thailand, the Moei flows north. The river forms the natural border line between Thailand and Burma. The districts along the Moei River bank of Thailand, from South to North are Mae Sot, Mae Ramat, Tha Song Yang and finally it enters the Salween River in Sop Moei district of Mae Hong Son Province. The river is about 327 km long. The Rangoon River, also known as the Yangon River, is about 40 km long (25 miles), and flows from southern Burma as an outlet of the Irrawaddy River into the Irrawaddy delta. The Rangoon River drains the Bago Mountains; both the Rangoon and the Bassein Rivers enter the Irrawaddy at the delta. The Ruak River is a river along the Thai-Burma border. It originates within the hills of the Shan State of Burma, and becomes the boundary river between Thailand and Burma at the confluence with the Mae Sai River at the northernmost point of Thailand. It then meanders to the east until it empties into the Mekong River at Ban Sop Ruak, Tambon Wiang, Chiang Saen district, Chiang Rai Province. The boundary section of the river is 26.75 km long. The Shan Plateau is drained by the Salween River, which enters Burma from southern China and empties into the Gulf of Martaban southeast of the Sittang. The Salween rises in the Plateau of Tibet, and then flows east through Sichuan, then south through the western Yunnan province of southwestern China. The Salween is about 2,415 km long (1500 miles). Many of its tributaries are more than 480 km (300 miles) long and join the Salween in cascades. The river continues south through Burma, and its lower course becomes part of the boundary between Thailand and Burma. The river empties into the Gulf of Martaban at Moulmein. The Salween River, because of its rapids, is navigable for less than 160 km (100 miles) from the sea. The Salween River is deeply entrenched and crosses the Shan Plateau in a series of deep gorges. It is home to over 7,000 species of plants and 80 rare or endangered animals and fish. UNESCO said this region “may be the most biologically diverse temperate ecosystem in the world” and designated it a World Heritage Site in 2003. The Salween is the longest undammed river in mainland Southeast Asia. Proposals to build several dams along the river, mainly in Burma, are controversial. Thailand is studying the feasibility of jointly constructing the Hatgyi Dam on the Salween River near the border with Burma; citing environmental, cultural, and social concerns, China is reconsidering construction of 13 dams on the Salween River but energy-starved Burma with backing from Thailand remains intent on building five hydroelectric dams downstream, despite identical regional and international protests. The Sittang River flows into the Gulf of Martaban of the Andaman Sea. The Sittang flows in east central Burma, and then flows south to the head of the Gulf of Martaban. The river is about 418 km long (260 miles) and, for a comparatively short river, it has a large valley and delta. Although the Sittang River flows through fairly flat country, the Sittang has a notorious tidal bore at its mouth which has precluded any but very small craft navigating the river. Strong currents make the river even less valuable as a means of transport in eastern Burma. The Sittang, in spite of its silt, is usable by smaller boats, but its basin September 2008 12 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science does not have the same richness for agriculture as the Irrawaddy because there is no soil flowing from the Himalayas. The Zawgyi River is a river of eastern Burma. It flows through the foothills of the Shan Mountain range in Shan State. Burma has two major lakes. The Indawgyi Lake, in the northern hills, runs some 24 km (15 miles) from north to south and 13 km (8 miles) from east to west. The Indawgyi is one of the largest natural inland lakes of Southeast Asia. Somewhat smaller is Inle Lake, stretching about 22 km (14 miles) from north to south and 11 km (7 miles) from east to west, is located on the Shan Plateau. The Inle Lake is fed by dozens of streams. September 2008 13 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science Geography The life expectancy in Burma is: Male 58 years; Female 63. Hospitals 1:1,586. The literacy rate is 78%. The major ethnic groups in Burma are: Burman 68%, Shan 9%, Karen 7%, Rakhine 4%, Chinese 3%, Indian 2%, Mon 2%, other 5%. Complicating national unity, over half of Burma's population consists of diverse ethnic groups who have substantial numbers of kin living in neighboring countries. Thailand must deal with Karen and other ethnic refugees, asylum seekers, and rebels, as well as illegal cross-border activities from Burma. India also seeks cooperation from Burma to keep Indian Nagaland separatists, such as the United Liberation Front of Assam, from hiding in the remote Burmese Uplands. Image taken from: “Burma: A Country Study.” 1984. Foreign Area Studies, the American University. 3rd edition. US GPO. September 2008 14 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science The Burmans, who form the largest ethnic group, account for more than half of the population. They are concentrated in the Irrawaddy River valley and in the coastal strips, with an original homeland in the central dry zone. The Shans (shahns) are about 9% of the population. “Once the masters of the Burmans when they ruled after the collapse of the Pagan-based monarchy, the Shans have no historical inferiority complex. In the centuries after the Pagan period, the Shans developed their own monarchies where Shan mandalas of power oscillated constantly as more powerful Burmese and Thai kings contested each other. Deference to outside royalty was a small price to pay for considerable Shan independence internally. The Shans in 1983 were basically rice farmers, skillful traders, and a valley people. In matters of governance, historically they have allowed an aristocratic elite to rule them.” The Shan of the Shan Plateau have little ethno-linguistic affinity with the Burmans, and, although historically led by hereditary rulers, their society was less elaborately structured than that of the plains peoples. The Shan represent a small but significant portion of the country’s population. The ethnographic complexity of the highlands occasionally leads to mis-groupings of some of the smaller communities with their more prominent neighbors. For example, the Wa and the Palaung of the Shan Plateau are often grouped with the larger, but ethnically and linguistically distinct, Shan community. The Karen ethnic group is about 7% of the Brumese population. “It has been fashionable to call the traditional religion of people like the Karens a form of animism, or ‘spirit worship.’ The word never does justice to such beliefs, which may be as complex and lofty as those of the major religions of the world. Traditional Karens, like so many other peoples, believe that both matter and spirit are realities, each possibly inhabiting the same entity at a given time or perhaps later separated but still linked. There are Karen gods, rituals, and oral religious traditions so impressive that early missionaries toyed with the belief that the Karens were a lost tribe of Israel. No matter where Karens live, they characteristically have a strong sense of ethnic pride.” The Karen are the only hill people who have settled in significant numbers in the plains. Constituting about one-tenth of the population, they are the second largest ethnic group in Burma. They are found in the deltas among the Burmans, in the Bago Mountains, and along both sides of the lower Salween River. The Kayah, who live on the southern edge of the Shan Plateau, were once known as the Red Karen, or Karenni, apparently for their red robes. Although ethnically and linguistically Karen, they tend to maintain their own identity and hereditary leadership. The Chin (pronounced “JIN”): In the western hills and the Chindwin River valley are various groups called by the comprehensive name of Chin. “Turbulent, competitive, legalistic, and yet very social, the Chins did not take to Christianity as well as did the Karens. Like the Karens, those who are Christians (possibly one-quarter of the population) have hoped to use their new faith to link with outside powers to protect their people from being engulfed by Burmans. The Chin religion, in which the door to paradise is opened by hinting done in the proper way to honor and contend with the spirits of what is killed, can be seen in contrast to the Buddhism of their neighbors, where taking life is normatively scorned. Animal sacrifice, so common among hill peoples, is likewise condemned by valley Buddhists.” The Naga on the Burma side of the frontier with India sometimes are mistakenly placed with the Chin September 2008 15 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science Numerous small ethnic groups, most of which inhabit the upland regions, together account for roughly one-fifth of Burma’s population. The upper Irrawaddy valley and the northern hills are occupied by groups under the comprehensive name of Kachin. These peoples long have had an association with the Burmans. The Muhso (a Lahu people) in northeastern Burma are sometimes grouped with the Kachin. Chinese, Indians, and other minorities in Burma: “Since only people who can prove long familial links to Burma are accorded full citizenship, ethnic populations such as Muslims, Indians, and Chinese, continued to be denied full citizenship and to be excluded from government positions. People without full citizenship are not free to travel domestically and are barred from certain advanced university programs in medicine and technological fields. Anti-Chinese and anti-Muslim sentiment remained pervasive.” Religions The major religions of the country are: Buddhist 89%, Christian 4% (Baptist 3%, Roman Catholic 1%), Muslim 4%, animist 1%, other 2%. Theravada Buddhism: “In strict orthodox Theravada Buddhism, Gotama (Siddhārtha Gautama) was merely a human being; he does not exist anywhere to hear people’s prayers. His words are left in the sacred books and can be learned from his ‘sons,’the living Theravada monks, who exist today as the Buddha once instructed the first monks to live. All Burmans share in this heritage and follow some semblance of the strict orthodox teachings. The Buddhism of the Pali scriptures, however, often differs from actual religious beliefs and practices in modern Burma.” (all quotations are from the Library of Congress Country Studies/Area Handbook--Burma [Myanmar]) Hinduism: Burma has a substantial number of Hindu adherents in Rakhine. However, many Burmans remember the use of Indian soldiers to colonize and conquer Burma, and thus are looked upon unfavorably by the majority. Also, many of the Buddhist beliefs claim superiority over Hinduism, and the traditional Hindu gods are relegated to godlings who must be reborn as Buddhist humans. Islam: “The historically porous border between Burma and Bangladesh and India has been the source of perpetual movement of Muslims back and forth in response to their various political fortunes. Although the potential was always there for BuddhistMuslim confrontation, in general the two groups have managed to live peaceably side by side but without much interaction.” Mosques are found in Arakan, Rangoon, and in all areas where the Muslim community is strong, some of these groups having established themselves in Burma centuries ago. Mosques are primarily found within the Rakhine State. Like the Hindu and Chinese populations, Muslims have to keep a low profile in terms of asserting their ethnic identity in order to avoid the racial antagonism that has often flared up in the past.” (Human Rights Report...) Christian: Many Chins, Kachins, Karens and others are Christian. “Minorities in Burma face a Buddhist majority, and Christianity remains an option for asserting one’s distinctness, not only for the Karens or Chins, for example, but also for those who have had a genuine Christian conversion and for others who retain a fierce loyalty to all things British. On a visit to Mandalay, a visitor attempting, however ineptly, to speak Burmese should not be surprised to have an impeccably dressed older man watch for a while with a smile and then speak in exquisite English with a perfect Oxford accent. The same elderly September 2008 16 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science gentleman will finish his days as an ardent Christian. No revolution will convert him into either a Buddhist or a socialist.” Languages The majority language is Burmese, though minority ethnic groups have their own languages. Many indigenous languages—as distinct from mere dialects—are spoken in Burma. The official language of the country is Burmese, spoken by the people of the plains and, as a second language, by most people of the hills. During the colonial period, English became the official language, but Burmese continued as the primary language in all other settings. Both English and Burmese were compulsory subjects in schools and colleges. Burmese, Chinese, and Hindi were the languages of commerce. After independence English ceased to be the official language, and after the military coup of 1962 it lost its importance in schools and colleges; an elementary knowledge of English, however, is still required, and its instruction is again being encouraged. The local languages of Burma belong to three language families. Burmese and most of the other languages belong to the Tibeto-Burman subfamily of Sino-Tibetan languages. The Shan language belongs to the Tai family. Languages spoken by the Mon of southern Burma and by the Wa and Palaung of the Shan Plateau are members of the Mon-Khmer subfamily of Austro-Asiatic languages. Speakers of Burmese and Mon historically have lived in the plains, while speakers of a unique dialect of Burmese (that perhaps retains some archaic features of pronunciation) have occupied the Rakhine and Tenasserim coastal plains. The hills were inhabited by those speaking Shan, Kachin, Chin, and numerous other languages. In the plains the ancient division between northern and southern Burma (Upper Burma and Lower Burma, respectively) was based not only on geographic differences but also on a linguistic one. The Mon (now a small minority) lived in southern Burma, while the majority Burman population lived in the northern dry zone. Until colonial times only Burmese, Mon, Shan, and the languages of the ancient Pyu kingdom of northern Burma were written. Writing systems for the languages of the Karen, Kachin, and Chin peoples were developed later. September 2008 17 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science Land Use The area of arable land in Burma during 2005 was 14.92% of the country, with permanent crops: 1.31% and other uses: 83.77%. In 2003, there were 18,700 sq km of irrigated land. The major agricultural products of Burma are rice, pulses, beans, sesame, groundnuts, sugarcane; hardwood; fish and fish products. According to official estimates, about half of Burma remains covered with forests or jungles of various types (depending on elevation and the amount of precipitation). Even after centuries of rice cultivation involving the clearing of forested areas, large tracts of forest remain, but actual coverage may be less than estimated, however. Subtropical and temperate forests of oak and pine are found at elevations above 3,000 feet (900 meters). In the northern mountains, above 6,000 feet (1,800 meters), are forests of rhododendrons. Elephants are numerous in Burma, and many are trained for work, especially in the timber industries. Tigers, leopards, and wildcats are still common in the wild. Some bears are found in the hilly regions, and gibbons and monkeys of various kinds inhabit the thicker parts of the forests. Tropical evergreen rainforests of hardwood trees occur in areas receiving more than 2,000 mm (80 inches) of rain annually. In regions where the rainfall is between 1,000 and 2,000 mm (40 and 80 inches) are found broad-leaved tropical-deciduous monsoon forests, the trees of which shed their leaves during the hot season. They produce valuable woods, notably teak. The jungles of Burma are home to a profusion of birdlife, including grouse, pheasants, parrots, peafowl and other wild fowl. The Asian two-horned rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), the wild water buffalo, the gaur (a species of wild cattle), and various kinds of deer were once plentiful but they are now reduced in number and are protected. Where rainfall is less than 40 inches, the forests gradually open into scrubland. There are no true grasslands in Burma, but bamboo, bracken (ferns), and coarse grass grow in areas where the forest has been cleared and then abandoned. Snakes include pythons, cobras, and vipers, and crocodiles are found in the deltas. Turtles live in coastal regions, and edible fish abound in every stream. The country of Burma can be divided into three distinct agricultural regions: the Irrawaddy river delta, where cultivation of rice in flooded paddies predominates; the largely irrigated dry zone, an area primarily of rice production but where a wide variety of other crops also are raised; and the hill and plateau regions, where forestry and cultivation of rice and other crops through shifting agriculture are most important. Delta The delta’s traditional agriculture consisted primarily of rice in normal years, with the substitution of millet in drier years or when there was insufficient moisture for rice. Both millet and rice yielded good returns on the alluvial soils. Although the dry zone was Burma’s most important agricultural region in the past, the rice production of the Irrawaddy River delta now provides much of the country’s export earnings and the staple diet of the country’s people. In the Irrawaddy and Sittang river deltas are also found tidal forests of mangrove trees that grow as high as 30 meters (100 feet) and these trees supply firewood and bark for tanning. September 2008 18 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science The lowland regions are covered with alluvial soils- mainly silt and clay. Low in nutrients and organic matter, the planted soils are improved by fertilizers. Burma’s richest soils are found in a narrow alluvial strip along the Bay of Bengal, where mountain streams irrigate the land in the wide Irrawaddy and Sittang river valleys. These deep soil deposits form a vast, fertile belt especially suitable for rice cultivation because of the abundant moisture. Dry Zone The Dry Zone covers approximately 8,718,898 hectares or about 13% of the country's total land area, and is situated in the lower Sagaing, Mandalay and Magway Divisions. Based on mean annual precipitation rates the Dry Zone covers 13 administrative districts and 57 townships. The topography is generally undulating. Most of the local streams are dry for much of the year with water flow is usually limited to the rainy periods. Crops grown in the dry zone, in addition to rice and millet, include sugarcane, fruits (such as plantains), legumes, peanuts or groundnuts, maize, onions, sesame, rubber, and allspice. To cultivate much of this land successfully, however, irrigation is required. The earliest known irrigation works were constructed in the 1st century and greatly improved during the 11th century. Although the irrigation system maintenance lapsed somewhat after the fall of the monarchy in the late 19th century, many of the ditches and streams are still in active service. As in the delta, the arrival of the British in the dry zone led to increased commercial and public-works activities. British authorities repaired and extended parts of these ancient systems during the early 20th century. Most of Burma’s irrigated land is in the dry zone, and almost all of it is planted in rice. The portions of the dry zone that are not irrigated are utilized for the production of crops that are less sensitive to the seasonality or irregularity of rainfall than rice. In addition to the crops mentioned above, cotton and millet are cultivated, although neither is of considerable significance. Cattle also are raised there. The Dry Zone townships are characterized by clay, sandy loam and sandy soils that include gravel. The soils clearly vary with topography. According to soil survey data, all soil series in the Dry Zone have low fertility and have declining organic matter levels. Potassium levels are also low for agriculture. Nitrogen is required for all non-legume crops on all soil types. This also suggests the consistent low organic matter level in the soil. The soil moisture holding capacity of the soils of the Dry Zone are low and with the high level of evapotranspiration, impacts agriculture. This lack of moisture in the ground constitutes a major constraint to crop growth during periods of inadequate rainfall, such as in June and July. Farm management practices that conserve soil moisture or increase the water holding capacity of the soils are being practiced to help take advantage of the full growing season. Hard pan formation is common to all the upland areas. In the dry belt of the central region are found red-brown soils rich in calcium and magnesium. In the same region, however, when the soil has a low clay content, and it becomes saline under high evaporation that is recognizable by its yellow or brown color. Soil erosion is a serious problem and in some places in the Dry Zone the soil has been almost completely removed by water and wind erosion. Soil erosion is particularly September 2008 19 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science severe in the upland areas of Kyaukpadaung and Chaung U, largely as a result of the high intensity of rainfall and rapid surface runoff. Moreover, since most of the soil in these areas is moderately textured with a slope ranging from 5-15%, the erodibility of the soil is also high. In Chaung U, the most severe erosion occurs in the upland areas. In contrast, the incidence of soil erosion in the foot plain is lower. Sheet and rill erosion and vertical dissection are widespread, resulting in an uneven topography. In Magway, because of the sandy topsoil there is also a high level of erosion. The susceptibility of the soil to erosion is compounded by the high level of rainfall occurring over short periods. Wind erosion is a particularly severe problem while sheet and gully erosion are largely confined to wasteland areas. Soil erosion and land degradation are the two components responsible for declining production potential. Hill and Plateau Country The third agricultural zone, the hill and plateau country, occupies perhaps twothirds of the area of Burma. This land has less economic significance than the other two zones; it is the home of many of the country’s non-Burman ethnic groups, most of whom are engaged in shifting cultivation. More-sedentary modes of agriculture also exist, however, and have been imposed with the advance of agricultural technology, increased population, and central planning. The highland regions of Burma are covered with highly leached, iron-rich, dark red and reddish brown soils. When protected by forest cover, these soils absorb the region’s heavy rain, but they erode quickly once the forest cover has been cleared. Outside the forest areas of these highlands, the principal crops raised are rice, yams, and millet, and large numbers of pigs and poultry are kept. Bullocks and buffalo are used as draft animals, and goats, pigs, and poultry are raised for food in all parts of the country. September 2008 20 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science Myanmar Dominant Soils. Geographical distribution of 10 dominant soil types in Myanmar. Map created by FAO/NRL from Harmonized World Soil Database (HWSD) – FAO September 2008 21 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science Economy Burma is one of the poorest nations in southeastern Asia, suffering from decades of stagnation, mismanagement and isolation. Burma's GDP grows at an average rate of 2.9% annually – the lowest rate of economic growth in the Greater Mekong Sub-region. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing together constitute the largest contributor to Burma’s economy. About half of all agricultural land in Burma is devoted to rice, and to increase production the government has promoted multiple cropping (sequential cultivation of two or more crops on a single piece of land in a single year), a system that is easily supported by the country’s climate. As a whole, the sector accounts for nearly one-half of the country’s gross domestic product and employs about two-thirds of the labor force. The second most important element in the diet, after rice, is fish, either fresh fish or in the form of ngapi, a sort of nutritional paste that is prepared in a variety of ways and eaten as a condiment. Marine fisheries are not well developed, although the industry’s reported commercial catch is much greater than that reported from inland waters. Much private, noncommercial fishing is provided, however, in virtually every type of permanent, seasonal, or artificial body of inland water of any size. Non-indigenous fish, including the European carp and the tilapia, originally brought from Thailand, have become the focus of a growing aquaculture industry. Under British administration and until the early 1960s, Burma was the wealthiest country in Southeast Asia. It was once the world's largest exporter of rice. After Burma was officially annexed to British India in 1886, however, colonial policy called for a more commercially oriented and more extensive cultivation of rice. Since the indigenous labor force was thought to be insufficient to support the colonial export economy, the immigration of Indian and Chinese laborers into Burma was officially encouraged during the early decades of the 20th century. Despite the departure of much of the immigrant labor force and the relatively low growth in rice production after World War II, rice remained both the basic food and, until the 1990s (when it was overtaken by dry beans), the principal agricultural export of Burma. Also during the British administration, Burma supplied oil through the Burmah Oil Company. Burma also had a wealth of natural and labor resources. It produced 75% of the world's teak and had a highly literate population. The country was believed to be on the fast track to development. After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu attempted to make Burma a welfare state. His administration adopted the Two-Year Economic Development Plan, which was a failure. The 1962 coup d’état was followed by an economic scheme called the “Burmese Way to Socialism”, a plan to nationalize all industries, with the exception of agriculture. In 1989, the Burmese government began decentralizing economic control. It has since liberalized certain sectors of the economy, although lucrative industries of gems, oil and forestry remain heavily regulated. These industries have recently been exploited by foreign corporations and governments which have partnered with the local government to gain access to Burma's natural resources. The major occupations in Burma are in agricultural processing; wood and wood products; copper, tin, tungsten, iron; cement, construction materials; pharmaceuticals; fertilizer; natural gas; garments, jade and gems. The labor force in 2001 was 70% in agriculture; 7% in industry and 23% in services. September 2008 22 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science Transportation Airports. There are 86 airports in Burma in 2007. There are 25 airports with paved runways over 3,047 meters long; 8 airports with paved runways from 2,438 to 3,047 meters long; 10 airports with paved runways from 1,524 to 2,437 meters long; 5 airports with paved runways from 914 to 1,523 meters long and one airport that has a runway that is under 914 meters long. Airports with unpaved runways total 61. Airports with unpaved runways over 3,047 m: 1; airports 1,524 to 2,437 m: 14; airports 914 to 1,523 m: 14; and those airports with unpaved runways under 914 m: 32. In 2007, there were four heliports listed in Burma. The state-run Burma Airways International runs frequent domestic flights between Yangon and other cities; it also has international service from Yangon to several major Southeast Asian cities. There are also small privately owned airlines that offer domestic and very limited international service. International airports are located only in Yangon and Mandalay. Railroads in Burma are old and rudimentary, with inadequate and few repairs since their construction in the late nineteenth century. Railways total 3,955 km of narrow gauge track and 3,955 km of 1.000-m gauge in 2006. The first railway line, running from Yangon to Pyay (Prome) and built in 1877, followed the route of the Irrawaddy River valley. The line was not extended to Mandalay; instead, after 1886 a new railway from Yangon up the Sittang valley was constructed, meeting the Irrawaddy at Mandalay. From Mandalay it crossed the river and, avoiding the Irrawaddy valley, went up the Mu River valley to connect with the Irrawaddy again at Myitkyina. A short branch line railroad now connects Naba to Katha on the Irrawaddy below Bhamo. The Yangon-Mandalay-Myitkyina railway is the main artery, and from it there are branch lines connecting the northern and central Shan Plateau with the Irrawaddy. Other branches run from Pyinmana across the Bago Mountains to Kyaukpadaung and from Bago to Mawlamyine to Ye. The Pyay-Yangon railway has a branch crossing the apex of the delta to Hinthada and Pathein (Bassein). Roads and highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities. About 78 percent of the main roads are paved, with about two-thirds of the roads constructed of gravel, and the rest passable most easily only by jeep or ox cart. In 2005, there were a total of 27,000 km of roadways in Burma, of which 3,200 km are paved and 23,800 km are unpaved. The road system, until independence, was confined to the Irrawaddy and Sittang valleys, and effectively duplicated the railway route. There are extensive road links and several bridge links with Thailand and China. A road goes from Pyay along the Irrawaddy to the oil fields, and many other roads extend into the rural areas. These rural roads, however, are often impassable during the wet season. In the 1990s the government focused considerable energy on reconstructing roads, often with volunteer or forced labor. There were originally three international roads in use during World War II: the Burma Road from Lashio to Kunming in China; the Stilwell, or Ledo, Road between Myitkyina and Ledo in India; and the road between Kengtung, in the southeastern Shan Plateau, and northern Thailand. The Burma Road, which extended September 2008 23 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science from northeast of Mandalay into China, played an important role in World War II. These roads subsequently became neglected but more recently have been rebuilt and extended. There are about 12,800 km (2007) of waterways in Burma. In 2008, the merchant marine in Burma has a total of 27 registered ships (1000 GRT3 or over) 170,403 GRT and 211,739 DWT4; by type: bulk carrier 2, cargo 19, passenger 2, passenger/cargo 3, specialized tanker 1; foreign-owned: 3 (Germany 2, Japan 1). The long coastline and numerous islands in Burma provide several good harbors. Small steamers and country boats also serve the coasts of the Rakhine and Tenasserim regions. The major ports and terminals are: Moulmein, Yangon and Sittwe. Yangon, as the terminus of road, rail, and river-transport systems, is the country’s major port, with up-to-date equipment and facilities. Pathein, Mawlamyine, and Sittwe are also important ports. Bibliography and Sources of Citations This bibliography on the geology, geography and earth sciences of Burma was gathered from a variety of different abstracting, bibliographical and cartographical resources. They include 592 citations from agriculture, botany, engineering, geology, geography, medical, military science, soils, transportation and other subject resources. These citation resources are provided by a number of scientific societies, such as the American Geographical Society; from government resources, such as the Defense Technical Information Center; non-governmental organizations such as the United Nation’s Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO); and from commercial databanks such as GeoRef, WorldCat and GeoBase. Many unique citations were collected from the catalogs and resources of major research libraries, such as the Library of Congress and the US Geological Survey Library. Within this bibliography, the article retrieval information is given as much as possible. These include specific ISSN, ISBN, OCLC and Library of Congress numbers that allow the electronic borrowing or copying of these items through library networks. Alternately, the citations also include information on acquiring these items through document delivery companies and commercial services. Very often, scientific publications in less developed countries are not published in large numbers, and it is very difficult to retrieve reports or maps more than even a few years old. This bibliography is intended to be a resource for those scientific citations on Burma that can still be retrieved. Also included, when possible, are the addresses and contact information of the journal authors. Many of these experts could be reached as needed during the crisis for additional information and support. Within these citations are many variations in spelling and place names. Many scientific and cartographic investigations were done in various local languages, and the languages of neighboring countries. Thus, the same name may be spelled differently 3 Gross Register Tonnage (GRT) represents the total internal volume of a vessel, with some exemptions for non-productive spaces such as crew quarters; 1 gross register ton is equal to a volume of 100 cubic feet (2.83 m³), which volume, if filled with water, would weigh around 2,800 kg or 2.8 tons. 4 Deadweight (often abbreviated as DWT for deadweight tons) is the displacement at any loaded condition minus the lightship weight. It includes the crew, passengers, cargo, fuel, water, and stores. Like Displacement, it is often expressed either in long tons or in metric tons. September 2008 24 Bibliography of Burman Earth Science according to the language(s) used. Variations on single and doubled consonants (geminated consonants) and single and doubled vowels (diphthongs) are common. R