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Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources CHAPTER 3. WATER RESOURCES The Sinnemahoning watershed is blessed with an abundance of high-quality water resources that support fisheries, residents, and businesses. The vast expanse of forested hillsides support the continued preservation of these highquality streams, but there are several threats that impact some streams within the watershed. Abandoned mine drainage (AMD), erosion and sedimentation, and improperly treated sewage are the main threats to this watershed. In order to maintain high-quality streams and restore degraded areas, local interest and involvement in restoration and conservation efforts will be critical to the continued enjoyment of this beautiful Steep, forested hillsides and high watershed within the Pennsylvania Wilds. quality water resources characterize the Sinnemahoning Creek watershed Location Drainage The Sinnemahoning Creek watershed is located within the 27,500-square-mile Susquehanna River drainage basin. Sinnemahoning Creek is the largest tributary watershed to the West Branch Susquehanna River, draining 1,034 square miles of land in Cameron, Clearfield, Clinton, Elk, McKean, and Potter counties, Pa. Three major subwatersheds comprise the Sinnemahoning Creek watershed—Bennett Branch, Driftwood Branch, and First Fork. Sinnemahoning Creek is formed at the confluence of Bennett Branch and Driftwood Branch in the borough of Driftwood. The First Fork empties into Sinnemahoning Creek approximately 3.7 miles downstream of Driftwood. Sinnemahoning Creek flows for an additional 11.9 miles, before draining into the West Branch Susquehanna River near the town of Keating, Clinton County, west of Renovo, Pa. Watershed Address The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has developed a system in order to better catalog and describe the location of surface water resources in the United States. This system divides and subdivides the U.S. into successively smaller units of water drainage, identified with the resulting specific Hydrologic Unit (HU) code. Major watersheds in the U.S. are described as one of 18 Water Resource Regions by the USGS. Each is given a name and two-digit number (Seaber et al., 1987). Pennsylvania is drained by three of these regions—Great Lakes, Ohio, and Mid-Atlantic. The Susquehanna River, including Sinnemahoning Creek, is in Region 02-Mid-Atlantic. The USGS further divides these regions into subregions, accounting units, and cataloging units. The HU for Sinnemahoning Creek watershed is 02050202, which can be described as follows: Region 02: Mid-Atlantic Subregion 0205: Susquehanna Accounting Unit 020502: West Branch Susquehanna Cataloging Unit 02050202: Sinnemahoning The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) uses a different cataloging system, which delineates six drainage basins within the state that are further divided into watersheds, each named for their major streams. The Sinnemahoning Creek watershed is located within the Susquehanna/Chesapeake Basin, and subsequently comprises Sub-basin Number 8—the Upper West 3-1 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources Branch Susquehanna sub-basin, and Watershed A—the Sinnemahoning Creek watershed. Therefore, DEP classifies Sinnemahoning Creek as Watershed 8A. Major Tributaries Bennett Branch Bennett Branch of Sinnemahoning Creek originates just across the watershed divide that separates the Susquehanna River drainage basin from the Ohio River drainage basin. Bennett Branch subwatershed This dividing ridge is located east of Sabula, Clearfield County. From this perimeter of the watershed, Bennett Branch flows northeast through the towns of Penfield, Hollywood, Force, Caledonia, Benezette, Grant, Dents Run, and Mix Run before joining the Driftwood Branch in the town of Driftwood to form the Sinnemahoning Creek. Major tributaries to the Bennett Branch include: Byrnes Run, Laurel Run, Medix Run (pronounced mē-diks), Trout Run, Dents Run, Hicks Run, and Mix Run. This subwatershed is heavily impacted by AMD as a result of the resource extraction that occurred throughout the region. Extensive efforts to remediate the effects of that pollution are underway. Driftwood Branch The mainstem of Driftwood Branch of the Sinnemahoning Creek begins near the town of Straight Creek, Elk County, and flows southeast through the borough of Emporium and on to the borough of Driftwood. Major tributaries to the Driftwood Branch include: Clear Creek, North Creek, West Creek, Sinnemahoning Portage Creek, Hunts Run, and Sterling Run. The two largest of those tributaries are West Creek and Sinnemahoning Portage Creek. West Creek’s headwaters form and flow underground near the outer limits of the city of Saint Marys, south of the Saint Marys Municipal Airport. It flows east to Emporium, where it empties into the Driftwood Branch. Just a short distance downstream, Sinnemahoning Portage Creek enters the Driftwood Branch. Sinnemahoning Portage Creek starts near Route 155 near Keating Summit, Potter County. It flows into McKean County, where several feeder streams Driftwood Branch of Sinnemahoning empty into it before the village of Gardeau, where the 2006 Creek Norfolk Southern train derailment occurred. Sinnemahoning Portage Creek continues in a southbound direction through Sizerville, ultimately flowing into the Driftwood Branch just outside of Emporium. The mainstem of Driftwood Branch continues flowing southeast to where it is joined by the Bennett Branch to form the Sinnemahoning Creek in Driftwood. First Fork The First Fork of Sinnemahoning Creek originates with Prouty Run near Patterson State Park in Potter County. It flows southwest through Prouty Place State Park before Borie Branch converges to form the mainstem of First Fork. First Fork continues in a southwestern direction, picking up waters from Big Moores Run downstream. Freeman Run, a major tributary of First Fork, begins approximately 3.5 miles west of Odin, Potter County. Freeman Run flows south through the borough of Austin, running adjacent to Route 872 from there until it empties First Fork of Sinnemahoning Creek near Costello 3-2 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources into the First Fork just north of Costello, Potter County. First Fork flows from that point in a more southerly route through Wharton and into Sinnemahoning State Park, where it is impounded by the George B. Stevenson Dam for the primary function of flood control, but also for recreational use of the reservoir. First Fork Sinnemahoning Creek flows adjacent to Route 872 to the mainstem of Sinnemahoning Creek near Jericho, Cameron County. Sinnemahoning Creek From the convergence of Bennett Branch and Driftwood Branch in the town of Driftwood, Sinnemahoning Creek flows east to Keating, Clinton County, where it empties into the West Branch Susquehanna River. Along its course, First Fork, Wykoff Run, Upper and Lower Jerry runs, and several other smaller tributaries enter Sinnemahoning Creek. Table 3-1. Major Tributaries % Area 35.42 2.87 3.65 2.47 3.20 2.42 3.31 3.21 Drainage Area (square miles) 366.26 29.68 37.71 25.49 33.04 25.00 34.18 33.24 Driftwood Branch Clear Creek North Creek West Creek Sinnemahoning Portage Creek Hunts Run Sterling Run 30.77 1.74 1.83 6.02 7.08 2.97 2.38 318.18 18.04 18.88 62.27 73.19 30.72 24.56 Sinnemahoning Creek (mainstem) & First Fork Freeman Run East Fork Wykoff Run 33.85 3.15 5.30 2.40 350.04 32.56 54.81 24.83 Tributary Bennett Branch Kersey Run Laurel Run Medix Run Trout Run Dents Run Hicks Run Mix Run Hydrology Hydrologic Cycle The continuous cycle of water on earth, otherwise known as the hydrologic cycle, consists of five basic processes: condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and evapotranspiration (evaporation plus plant transpiration). Clouds are formed when water vapor condenses to liquid form as air temperature drops. When clouds can no longer hold the moisture within them, precipitation occurs. Precipitation may be contributed to surface water or infiltrate the ground contributing to groundwater. If precipitation occurs faster than the water can infiltrate a particular surface or if the surface is impermeable, the water will run off into streams, lakes, or other surface waters. The water runoff carries contaminants from surfaces, soil, and debris, which may pollute the waterways they drain into. Simultaneously, water may evaporate 3-3 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources (change from liquid to vapor) or be taken up by plants, transpired through the leaves, and evaporated into the atmosphere, where the process of condensation occurs; and the cycle continues. Watershed Components Groundwater Water that seeps into the ground and is stored beneath the land surface in pores and openings of soil and rock is referred to as groundwater. Although groundwater is commonly considered a separate entity from surface water found in streams and lakes, the two are constantly interchanging and are actually a single resource. In fact, the majority of freshwater in Pennsylvania is found underground, supplying wells, streams, and reservoirs with water for drinking, industries, and other necessities of life. Groundwater moves with the force of gravity. It may move through the earth until it emerges at the surface as a discharge (springs or seeps) or is stored underground within areas of rock and soil called aquifers. Groundwater discharge is a major contributor to surface waters. The average percentage of stream flow from groundwater is 60–70 percent. Therefore, stream flow and surface water availability is heavily dependent on the quantity of groundwater. As a result of this dynamic, the quality of streams and lakes can be directly impacted by the quality of groundwater (Fleeger, 1999). Sources of contamination that may leach into groundwater include sewage waste, industrial chemicals, agricultural nutrients, metals and acidic compounds from mines and many other sources. These contaminants not only affect groundwater, but also affect surface and potable water supplies. Many public water suppliers and private homeowners rely on wells for drinking water and everyday use, and may be directly impacted by the quality of groundwater. The yields of wells depend upon the ease of groundwater movement through rock and the level of the water table— depth at which the soil is completely saturated. Groundwater is found in two types of openings in rock—primary and secondary. Primary openings are spaces between fine mineral grains. Though the space between unconsolidated grains may be small, cumulatively they are capable of generating large amounts of water. In contrast, secondary openings occur from fractures in rocks. Alluvial deposits generate the most water and were formed from the movement of rivers. Since groundwater is the single largest source of surface water, the quality of groundwater in an area can generally be determined by sampling streams at base flow, which is the point at which all surface flow comes from groundwater. In streams that are affected by mine drainage, sulfates, iron, and manganese can be found at unnaturally high levels, particularly at base flows. Similar to mine drainage, acid precipitation is able to dissolve the metals found in bedrock, causing those metals to leach into groundwater and streams. The majority of residents throughout the Sinnemahoning watershed get their water from private wells and springs. The areas that are served with public water obtain their source water from streams and reservoirs. Therefore, these public water sources are affected by groundwater quality and quantity. Water suppliers within the project area may struggle to find clean drinking water free of contamination from 3-4 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources mine drainage and other pollutant sources. Thus, treatment costs increase in order to meet drinking water standards, which translates to higher water costs for municipalities and consumers. Water sources should be tested regularly to ensure drinking water standards are being met. Surface Water Surface water refers to water found above the land surface in rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, wetlands, and seeps. Surface water is in constant interaction with groundwater, which is stored below the surface within openings in rock material. Therefore, it is influenced by the quality of the groundwater, as well as inputs from land-use practices associated with farming, forestry, mining, and other activities. Streams and Rivers As water drains from ridges, tributaries form and grow in size and volume as the water flows to lower elevations. Larger streams are influenced by the water quality of these tributaries from which they originate, as well as pollution from acid precipitation and human land-use activities. Not all streams flow year-round. Because surface water flowing in streams is primarily from groundwater, it is important to understand the relative position of the stream bottom with respect to the water table in order to define a perennial, intermittent, or ephemeral stream. Although not all streams flow year-round, all streams within Pennsylvania are protected under the Pennsylvania Clean Streams Law of 1931, which gave the state of Pennsylvania the power to enact legislation and regulations pertaining to the protection of streams. According to the Pennsylvania Code (1997), an intermittent stream is a “body of water flowing in a channel or bed composed of substrates primarily associated with flowing water, which during periods of the year is below the local water table and obtains its flow from both surface runoff and groundwater discharges.” Streams that do not flow year-round are intermittent streams. An ephemeral stream is a “water conveyance which lacks substrates associated with flowing waters and flows only in direct response to precipitation in the immediate watershed or in response to melting snowpack, and which is always above the local water table.” For example, a small “stream” that flows down a grassy hill after a heavy rain would be considered ephemeral. A perennial stream is a “body of water flowing in a channel or bed composed primarily of substrates associated with flowing water and is capable, in the absence of pollution or other manmade stream disturbances, of supporting a benthic macroinvertebrate community composed of two or more recognizable taxonomic groups of organisms which are large enough to be seen by the unaided eye and live at least part of their life cycles within or upon available substrates in a body of water or water transport system.” Perennial streams flow year-round, because they are always below the water table. Permissible pollution discharge limits are determined based on the amount a stream can tolerate and still support an aquatic community of species that characterize a perennial stream. In the past, mining operators in Pennsylvania were able to reclassify streams as intermittent or ephemeral, so there was no special protection under state mining regulations. However, DEP has shifted its policy to require detailed biological assessments before approving such changes. Under this new policy, non-permanent intermittent and ephemeral streams receive similar protection as permanent, perennial streams. Protection of intermittent and ephemeral streams is included for logging and other earth-moving activities, although permitted activities may differ from those involving perennial streams. In cases where there is some question over what protections are in place for an activity, DEP’s Northwest (serving Elk 3-5 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources and McKean counties) or Northcentral (serving Cameron, Clearfield, Clinton and Potter counties) Regional Offices should be consulted. Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Lakes are inland bodies of water formed through natural or man-made processes. The natural processes by which lakes originated may include geologic events, such as the movement of the earth’s plates, which disrupt the flow of a river to form a lake. In the United States, most natural lakes were formed thousands of years ago when the advance of glaciers caused great depressions to form and fill with water. Natural lakes are uncommon in Pennsylvania, and occur only in the northwestern and northeastern parts of the state. Lakes differ from ponds in that they have more visible waves, are deeper, have rooted plants that are only able to grow close to the shore, and have water temperatures that vary with depth. Ponds, natural and man-made, are present throughout the state, though their locations are not well documented. Reservoirs, or impoundments, are common throughout Pennsylvania. Reservoirs are created when a body of water is detained by a structure, such as a dam. These reservoirs of water behind the dams, sometimes referred to as “lakes,” are often utilized for recreational activities, such as fishing, swimming, and boating. They also may provide flood control or water supply for nearby communities. Some industries create reservoirs to contain waste water, which often contains pollutants discharged after use in their operations. Along with the reservoir of water impounded by a dam, wetlands are often formed on the marginal areas surrounding them. These wetlands provide valuable wildlife and fish habitats. Some trees within those wetlands die when inundated by the saturated soil, but remain standing. These dead, standing trees are referred to as “snags,” and they provide valuable habitat for animals that nest in the cavities that can be created in the dead wood. Wetland in Sinnemahoning watershed Wetlands In order for an area to be considered a wetland, it must have three components: anaerobic or hydric soils, wetland vegetation, and indications that it has been covered with water at least part of the year (Mitsch & Gosselink, 2000). Anaerobic or hydric soils form under flooded or saturated conditions that last long enough that the upper part of the soil contains no oxygen. An area does not have to be covered with water during the entire year to be considered a wetland. Wetland areas may be permanently flooded by shallow water, permanently saturated by groundwater, or periodically saturated for varying periods of time during the growing season. These characteristics of wetlands are due to the fact that wetlands occur where the water table is at or very near to the surface. Seasonal fluctuations of the water table result in the wetland being wet or dry. Wetlands retain water, which is slowly released to surface water streams or evaporated. If the water table is lower than the wetland, water may be absorbed into the ground from wetlands. Wetlands reduce the severity of flooding by retaining excess water and slowly discharging it. Wetlands filter water by a variety of mechanisms. Wetland vegetation slows the velocity of water, allowing more time for suspended sediment to settle out. Pollutants, such as chemicals and metals, which are bound to the sediment particles also settle and separate from the flowing water. Nutrients from fertilizers, manure, and sewage are removed from the water and utilized by the plants growing in the wetland. 3-6 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources Wetland systems often support a variety of living organisms, termed biodiversity. The nutrient rich sediment that collects in a wetland provides abundant nutrients and food resources for plants and wildlife. The emergent vegetation and dead, standing timber provide excellent breeding and nesting habitat for insects and wildlife, especially waterfowl. Many migratory species depend on wetlands for rest and recharge during their long migratory treks. Vernal pools are one type of wetland, where isolated ponds are created during the spring from rainwater and snow melt that has collected in depressions in the ground. These critical habitats provide breeding grounds for woodland frogs and salamanders. Vernal pools also support a variety of other floodplain, meadow, shrub lands, and woodland species. Wetland Loss More than half of all wetland habitats that once occurred in Pennsylvania have been lost. The major causes of wetland loss have been impoundment, drainage for agriculture and development, and conversion to other uses. The reduction of wetlands in any given area can drastically impact health and human safety by leading to increased occurrence and severity of flooding, decreased natural water quality revitalization, and exacerbated drought conditions. Loss of wetland habitat also negatively impacts wildlife. Stricter environmental regulations today prevent major wetland drainage and impoundment. However, recent federal court decisions have reduced the protections given to smaller, isolated wetlands under the Clean Water Act. Although smaller wetlands still receive some protection under Chapter 105 of the Pennsylvania Code, permits can often be acquired for their alteration or destruction (Pennsylvania Game Commission, 2005b). In Pennsylvania, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers permits regulation authority to DEP, where one acre or less of wetlands is impacted. A general permit form must be obtained from your county conservation district or regional DEP office to change, expand or diminish the course, current or cross section of a watercourse, floodway or waterbody, including wetlands. In addition, the local municipality and county must be notified of the applicant’s intent to obtain a general permit (DEP, 2006a). DEP, in conjunction with the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, has established a fund, called the “Pennsylvania Wetland Replacement Project,” to help permit applicants meet the wetland replacement requirements identified in Chapter 105. If, after DEP consultation, wetland replacement onsite is not feasible or deemed unnecessary, the permit applicant may contribute to the fund, based on the size of the disturbance. With the fund, DEP will support restoration projects throughout the state that restore wetlands, riparian corridors, and other aquatic systems (DEP, 2007a). It is critical to protect and maintain an abundance of wetlands in any watershed for flood protection, water quality improvement, and wildlife habitat. Artificially constructed wetlands do not perform the same as natural wetlands, but in any case, it is important to maintain as much wetland area as possible. Ideally, wetlands that are threatened by development or conversion should be protected with a buffer surrounding them to reduce the secondary impacts. Wetlands in Sinnemahoning Watershed Figure 3-6 delineates wetlands found throughout the Sinnemahoning watershed. Wetlands comprise less than one percent of the land area (Table 2-2, Chapter 2). Wetlands can be constructed to serve a specific purpose related to improving water quality. Wetlands can be constructed to control stormwater runoff in developed areas, remediate polluted mine drainage, 3-7 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan and treat wastewater. Several small, artificial wetlands exist throughout the study area to serve those purposes. Passive treatment systems to abate the effects of polluted mine drainage often include a system of settling ponds and wetlands to allow metals and pollutants to drop out of the water, incorporating alkaline additions when necessary. These treatment sites and wetlands offer a unique opportunity for a variety of educational workshops to teach the public and students about the effects of pollution, environmental remediation techniques, water quality, and biodiversity. Floodplains The area of land adjacent to a river, stream, or lake that absorbs the occasional overflow of water beyond the banks is known as the floodplain. Floodplains and wetlands dually act to absorb flood waters during highflow and storm events. When houses, buildings, roads, and paved surfaces are constructed in a floodplain or eliminate natural wetlands, the ability of those areas to dissipate flood waters is diminished. In addition, the likelihood of property damage and human health and safety risk increases when development occurs within a floodplain. The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), administered through the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA, 2002), was established in 1968 with the National Flood Insurance Act. Property owners can purchase insurance to protect against flood loss if communities agree to adopt ordinances that reduce flood damage, including limiting building in floodplain areas. Ordinances must meet minimum regulatory standards of NFIP and the PA Floodplain Management Act (PA Act 166). Residents from non-participating communities can still purchase insurance, but at a higher rate (FEMA, 2002). Chapter 3. Water Resources Table 3-2. Municipal Floodplain Ordinances Municipality Floodplain Ordinance Cameron County Driftwood Borough Emporium Borough Gibson Township Grove Township Lumber Township Portage Township Shippen Township Yes N/A Yes N/A Yes Yes N/A No Clearfield County Goshen Township Huston Township Lawrence Township No Yes No Yes Clinton County East Keating Township West Keating Township No No McKean County Norwich Township Yes Yes Elk County Benezette Township Fox Township Jay Township Jones Township Saint Marys, City of No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Potter County Austin Borough Eulalia Township Homer Township Keating Township Portage Township Summit Township Sylvania Township West Branch Township Wharton Township No Yes No N/A No No N/A N/A Yes N/A In communities that adopt such ordinances, building in Special Flood Hazard Areas (SFHA) may occur only if the owner agrees to purchase flood insurance. SFHAs are areas within the 100-year flood zone, which means that there is a one percent chance of a flood reaching this zone each year. Special subsidies are available for existing structures built before the adoption of ordinances. Future structures 3-8 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources built in 100-year floodplains must meet certain requirements. During declared national disasters, FEMA may also make grants and loans available to those not participating in the program (FEMA, 2002). Many communities in Pennsylvania have adopted a riparian buffer approach to floodplain management. These “total prohibition” ordinances encourage the reduction of construction and development in the floodplain. Due to the topography of the region—steep hillsides and narrow valleys—development and occupation is limited to Vegetated riparian buffer zones are valley areas, which affects floodplains. Floodplains can be critical for protecting water quality considered “sensitive” areas because they are both inappropriate for building purposes and important for protection of streams and wildlife. Currently, slightly more than half—56 percent—of the watershed’s municipalities have floodplain ordinances in effect. Special attention to these flooding and floodplain development issues should be addressed when development projects are considered. Riparian Areas Riparian zones along a stream filter pollutants and sediment from runoff and provide a buffer between the land and water. A healthy riparian zone contains a variety of grasses, wildflowers, shrubs, and trees that reduce flooding and erosion by retaining water, slowing its velocity, and stabilizing soil. This also promotes groundwater retention. Riparian zones provide habitat for wildlife, regulate water temperature through shading, enhance recreational activities, and create in-stream fish habitat. Studies have shown that the wider and more substantial the riparian zone, the better it performs these functions (Klapproth & Johnson, 2000). Some streams that flow through agricultural properties or developed areas may not have adequate riparian zones to filter runoff. A lack of riparian zone vegetation may cause severe bank erosion and allow the spread of invasive plants, which thrive in disturbed areas, like the bare soil of an eroded streambank. Figure 3-9 shows recommended riparian zone widths for bank support, fisheries habitat, nutrient and pollution removal, sediment control, flood control, and wildlife habitat. Figure 3-9 Recommended Riparian Buffer Widths Riparian Buffer Width 0’ 50’ 100’ 150’ 200’ 250’ 300’ Bank Stabilization Fisheries Habitat Nutrient Removal Sediment Control Flood Control Wildlife Habitat 3-9 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources Retaining existing buffers is a cost-effective method to protect waterways from sedimentation, streambank erosion, and flooding. A number of tools and programs are available in Pennsylvania for landowners and communities to protect and enhance these important riparian zones and other important green areas, such as: • • • • • Pennsylvania Stream ReLeaf Plan (DEP, 1997) and forest buffer tool kit (Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay [ACB] & DEP, 1998) Stream corridor restoration: principles, processes, and practices (Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group, 1998) Chesapeake Bay riparian handbook: A guide for establishing and maintaining riparian forest buffers (Palone & Todd, 1997) Riparian forest buffers: function and design for protection and enhancement of water resources (Welsch) Pennsylvania’s Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (U.S. Department of Agriculture Farm Service Agency) Floodplain and Riparian Area Protection In addition to the programs previously mentioned, there are several avenues a community may pursue to protect, restore, and conserve riparian corridors and natural areas. These methods are discussed below. A municipality or conservation organization may pursue land acquisition, which is the purchase or donation of land, to protect or restore a high quality riparian zone or land located in the floodplain. The Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (DCNR) offers funds for land acquisition to protect and restore natural areas. Land acquired with these funds must remain open to the public. Another financing option for the purchase of riparian land is to subdivide the area and sell the less-sensitive sections to offset the costs. Another way to protect riparian land and natural areas is by establishing a conservation easement— a voluntary land preservation agreement between the landowner and a land trust or local government that permanently restricts the type of land use allowed on that property. The landowner maintains ownership of the land, but gives up some of the development rights. The conservation easement compensates the landowner for the economic loss resulting from these restrictions, such as limited timber harvesting or grazing. The landowner may receive a tax credit for the reduced value of the property. Within Pennsylvania, municipalities may hold conservation easements and use various taxing schemes to raise money for the acquisition of open space and agricultural land. The Recreation Use of Land and Water Act and the Rails to Trails Act limit landowner liability for property owners with easements or adjoining trails (ACB, 2004) that are open to the public for recreation. Municipalities have several options in regards to land-use planning. County Comprehensive Plans are documents that address the timing and character of development. Although non-regulatory, the Municipalities Planning Code states that zoning ordinances must be consistent with comprehensive plans, which should contain planning for natural and historic preservation (Pennsylvania Municipalities Planning Code). An official municipality map designates existing and proposed open space reservations. If a municipality wishes to set aside a landowner’s property for open space purposes, then the municipality has a legal obligation to buy the land within 12 months of the landowner’s decision to develop it. Municipalities may adopt ordinances to restrict activities within a certain distance of a stream, based on stream size, slope of the land, wetlands, etc. This may include limiting the building of structures in areas prone to flooding, restricting streamside vegetation removal, and regulating the amount of earth disturbance in riparian zones. Typically, restrictions increase in zones that are the closest to the stream. 3-10 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources Structures present before an ordinance is enacted are often exempt from these restrictions. Several examples of municipalities in Pennsylvania that have riparian ordinances include Salford and Horsham townships, Montgomery County; Kennett Township, Chester County; Warwick Township, Lancaster County; and Radnor Township, Delaware County (ACB, 2004). Transferable development rights are used to compensate property owners in areas where development is restricted, by allowing them to sell development rights to increase development densities in other areas. Density bonuses allow developers to increase development density in exchange for conserving natural areas or contributing to an open space fund. A riparian stream buffer helps reduce stormwater runoff. Developers can receive stormwater credits, which result in construction of less costly stormwater management facilities, in exchange for maintaining or restoring riparian buffers (ACB, 2004). Stormwater Excess water from storm events and spring snow melt is commonly referred to as stormwater. Stormwater has traditionally been managed by creating ditches, drains, and pipes to funnel the water to the nearest stream or, in some cases, water treatment facility. While moving water away from homes and streets is important, we must also address the pollutants carried with the runoff and the potential for flooding due to the quick input of a large volume of water into the stream. Stormwater picks up and carries debris, chemicals, and other pollutants to streams and reservoirs. Garbage, tree limbs, other types of debris can clog drains or even streams, causing isolated floods, not to mention the visual degradation of natural areas. Sediment can degrade aquatic habitat and interfere with the reproduction of fish, mussels, and other aquatic life. Excess nutrients from agricultural runoff increase the growth of algae. As the algae dies and decomposes, it removes vital oxygen from the water. Bacteria and other pathogens carried to streams and reservoirs by stormwater may cause health hazards to humans who use those water sources for recreation or drinking water. Harmful chemicals from industrial and household wastes and pesticides that wash into water supplies are toxic to wildlife and humans. Even when stormwater is diverted to a waste treatment facility, some pollutants are missed, and the increased volume of water results in increased treatment costs for the public. Often times, the amount of water reaching the facility is so great that the system overflows and untreated water and raw sewage are discharged directly into streams. Impervious surfaces, such as roads, buildings, parking lots, and compacted soil, prevent or hinder stormwater’s ability to soak into the ground, exacerbating its impacts. In municipalities with combined stormwater and sewage systems, this results in the aforementioned overflows. Significant stream impacts have been shown to occur when only 10 percent of the surface area is impervious (Booth, Montgomery, & Bethel, 1996). Impervious surfaces and stormwater runoff increase the volume and velocity of surface water flowing in a stream, which diminishes groundwater replenishment and increases the rate of erosion. These changes result in flooding, loss and degradation of habitat, erosion, sedimentation, and physical changes in the stream. Small floods may increase by up to 10 times with increases in imperviousness from urbanization (Hollis, 1975). Municipalities are encouraged to minimize impervious surfaces and manage stormwater by using tools and techniques, such as performance zoning, residential design, and open space subdivision. In cooperation with businesses and homeowners, municipalities should encourage the use of porous pavement, rain barrels, rain gardens and vegetated swales, and vegetative buffers (especially in riparian 3-11 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources areas). Reducing impervious surface not only has environmental benefits, but reduces social, economic, and development costs as well. Everyone can minimize the negative impacts associated with polluted stormwater runoff by doing their part at home. Use only the minimum effective amount of lawn fertilizers, pesticides and other household chemicals. Better yet, compost and use your own natural fertilizer on gardens and flower beds. Dispose of hazardous waste properly or through a local recycling program. Test septic systems regularly to ensure proper functioning and quick response to leaks. Clean your vehicles at a car wash where the water is treated and recycled and check for leaking fluids. Pick up and flush pet waste. Create rain gardens using native plants to control runoff from your home. Collect rainwater from the roof of your house in a rain barrel, and use this chlorine-free water to water plants, wash pets, and clean your house and outdoor furniture. To respond to increased stormwater runoff, Pennsylvania created the Stormwater Management Act in 1978, which requires each county to develop stormwater management plans for each of its watersheds. Municipalities are required to adopt and implement ordinances consistent with these plans to regulate development. DEP provides funding options for stormwater management plans and model stormwater ordinances on its website, http://www.dep.state.pa.us (Keyword: Stormwater). Cameron County does not yet have a stormwater management plan. Clinton County has developed watershed-specific management plans for other watersheds in the county, but has not yet developed a county-wide stormwater management plan that includes Sinnemahoning Creek. Clearfield, Elk, McKean, and Potter counties have completed Phase I by developing county-wide stormwater management plans and are working with municipalities to develop and adopt stormwater management ordinances as part of Phase II implementation of the plans (DEP, 2009). Dams Dams were often installed along streams and rivers to harness the natural power of water for operating mills of varying sorts— saw, grist, and paper mills. Dams have also been established for navigation purposes and transportation of goods. The natural power of stream currents is still utilized for some industries today, and it can be harnessed for hydroelectric power generation. The ruins of the Austin Dam remain as Often times, dams no longer serve a purpose, and are a symbol of the tragic flood of 1911 abandoned. If not maintained, they may fall into a state of disrepair and pose a safety risk. Dam failures may cause flooding, resulting in injury or death to humans, property damage, and interruption of transportation and emergency services. Dams obstruct migration paths of fish, and may inhibit the movement and dispersal of other aquatic life. Abandoned dams also hinder recreational paddlers’ ease of transportation down a stream. It must be determined, based on maintenance costs, safety, and potential uses of the dam, whether or not to remove one. If a community decides to leave a dam in place, a portage trail may be constructed around the dam for paddlers. If it is determined that a dam should be removed, a plan must be developed for the removal process and restoration of the stream and its habitat afterwards. There are a few organizations responsible for the oversight of dam maintenance, regulation, and removal in Pennsylvania, including the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, DEP, Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission (PFBC), and American Rivers. Necessary permits must be obtained prior to removing a dam, and assistance is available to support the planning and restoration process. A useful resource for 3-12 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources additional information about the benefits of dam removal, volunteer monitoring, and references for assistance is the Citizen’s Guide to Dam Removal and Restoration, which can be obtained from the Pennsylvania Organization for Watershed and Rivers (POWR) at www.pawatersheds.org. The George B. Stevenson Dam at Sinnemahoning State Park created a man-made lake by damming First Fork Sinnemahoning Creek in 1955 for flood control in the West Branch Susquehanna River Basin. The George B. Stevenson Reservoir is 142 acres in size and offers fishing, boating, and wildlife viewing opportunities for the public. Some concerns have been raised by the public about the extreme water-level fluctuations at this dam and how it affects the ecology of the stream, public safety, and local establishments that depend on recreation-based business from tourists and visitors to the reservoir. The Austin Dam was built in 1909 to create reservoir from the flowing waters of Freeman Run to support a paper mill. That structure failed in September of 1911, flooding the downstream community of Austin, and killing nearly 80 people. More information on this disaster can be found in the Cultural Resources chapter. There are several more small dams, some privately owned, throughout the watershed that are not well-documented. These small reservoirs serve or had served the purpose of supplying water for communities or mills. Many of these small dams and reservoirs no longer exist, and some of those that remain have been abandoned. Water Quality Water Quality Designations Existing and Designated Uses The Clean Water Act is enforced through the assignment of existing and designated water uses. Existing uses are uses that a waterbody has had since November 1975. Designated uses are those that are currently recognized, regardless of whether they have been attained since 1975 (Elder et al., 1999). Examples of uses include aquatic life, shellfish harvesting, and agriculture. Polluted discharges are not permitted if they violate this existing use. If a point source will violate a current or designated use, a public hearing must be held to inform the public before the permit is issued. DEP Exceptional Value Qualifications y Located in a national wildlife refuge or a state game propagation and protection area y Located in a designated state park or state forest natural area, national natural landmark, federal or state wild river, federal wilderness area, or national recreational area y The water is an outstanding national, state, regional, or local resource y Has exceptional recreational significance y Achieves a score of at least 92% using approved biological assessment methods y Designated as a "wilderness trout stream" y Surface water has exceptional ecological significance. DEP High Quality Water Qualifications y Long-term water quality criteria better than PA Code Chapter 93.7 at least 99 percent of the time y Chemical and toxicity characterizing good water quality y Surface water quality supports high quality macroinvertebrate community y EPA Protocols for Use in Streams and Rivers score of at least 83 percent compared to high quality reference stream y Surface water has been designated a Class A Wild Trout Stream Water Classifications A watershed designated as High Quality (HQ) or Exceptional Value (EV) is considered to satisfy all designated uses. Within Pennsylvania, a stream designated as HQ or EV meets a number of criteria, including specific water quality and biological standards. As with other designated uses, any proposed discharge that will degrade a HQ stream below these criteria can only occur if a special exception is granted and the public is informed. Typically, no special exceptions are granted for EV streams. 3-13 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources The classifications of Warm Water Fishery (WWF) and Cold Water Fishery (CWF) describe the aquatic life that a waterbody is able to support. Warm-water streams support plants and animals that can survive in warmer temperatures, while cold-water streams support species that thrive at lower temperatures. In Pennsylvania, a WWF has a maximum healthy water temperature of 87° Fahrenheit versus 66° Fahrenheit for a CWF (PA Code, 1997). Typically, streams are warmer because less vegetation is present in the riparian area to cast shade over the stream. Impoundments may slow water flow, raising the temperature of the pooling water to be somewhat higher than water in faster flowing segments. Warm water streams often are found in areas that have been more intensively developed or used for agricultural activities, while CWFs can be found in forested areas. In Pennsylvania, many CWFs that would otherwise be pristine are impaired by AMD. Often, streams have temperature characteristics that are intermediate, between a CWF and WWF, and contain species characteristic of both types. Though there is no official classification, many people refer to these streams as “coolwater” streams. A Trout Stocked Fishery (TSF) possesses water quality that is not high enough to support naturally reproducing trout, but is able to support trout stocked by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission (PFBC). Nearly three quarters—74.4 percent—of the streams within the Sinnemahoning watershed are designated HQ or EV, affording them more stringent protection from deliberate pollution and degradation. For the most part, the watershed is healthy and many of the streams are attaining their designated uses. A complete listing of all stream designations can be found in Appendix G (PA Code, 1997). Most of the stream segments within the Bennett Branch subwatershed are designated CWF, with many HQ-CWF North Creek, one of the many highsegments and three EV segments—Byrnes Run, West Branch quality coldwater fisheries found within Hicks Run, and the headwaters of Mix Run. The mainstem of the Sinnemahoning Creek watershed Bennett Branch is a WWF from Mill Run to its confluence with the Driftwood Branch. Many of these quality streams have been degraded by high levels of metals and low pH resulting from pollution from abandoned mines. Over 88 percent of the stream segments within the Driftwood Branch subwatershed are designated as HQ-CWF or EV streams. Six EV stream segments are found within this subwatershed, including the headwaters of Elk Fork to Nichols Run, Cooks Run, Tannery Hollow Run, the headwaters of Clear Creek to Mud Run, the headwaters of Sinnemahoning Portage Creek to Cowley Run, and Cowley Run. The train derailment that resulted in thousands of gallons of sodium hydroxide being spilled into Sinnemahoning Portage Creek, severely devastated the stream’s exceptional water quality. The mainstem of Driftwood Branch from Elk Fork to its confluence with Bennett Branch is a TSF. First Fork is a major tributary to the mainstem of Sinnemahoning Creek. Looking at this tributary as a subwatershed, a vast majority—92.54 percent—of its stream segments are designated HQ-CWF. Five EV streams are present within the drainage area; they include East Fork Sinnemahoning Creek, Stony Lick Run, Birch Run, Bailey Run, and Lushbaugh Run. The mainstem of First Fork from the Stevenson Dam at Sinnemahoning State Park to its mouth is designated as HQ-TSF. Other than those segments, no CWF, WWF, or TSF streams were designated. 3-14 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources The entire Sinnemahoning Creek mainstem is designated as a WWF. While there are no EV tributaries flowing directly to it, all unnamed tributaries, as well as Grove Run, Wykoff Run, Upper Jerry Run, and Lower Jerry Run are designated HQ-CWF streams. Water Quality Monitoring The monitoring of surface waters should be regular, systematic, and ongoing. Watershed groups, conservation organizations, and conservation districts throughout the region should work together to monitor water quality in all tributaries of the Sinnemahoning Creek watershed. Water quality monitoring achieves the documentation of baseline stream health data to monitor conservation, preservation, and restoration efforts. Typically, tests are conducted for pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, sulfates, nitrates, temperature, flow volume, and macroinvertebrates. Macroinvertebrate sampling, along with aquatic salamander surveys, can be used to analyze water quality based on the presence and abundance of certain pollution-intolerant animals, also known as bio-indicators. Water quality monitoring of groundwater should also be conducted, since a majority of surface water is derived from groundwater discharge. Detection of pollution in the groundwater before it is discharged to surface water sources would enable proactive treatment exploration. This may aid in the identification of pollution sources through early detection, and allow for prioritized treatment and remediation strategies to be implemented. Pollution Sources Point Source Pollution Point source pollution refers to discharges, or pollution inputs, that enter a stream or lake directly via a pipe, culvert, container, or other means. One way the Clean Water Act is enforced is through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), whereby DEP issues permits for point source discharges (DEP7). In Pennsylvania, the DEP Dents Run is severely impacted by and local conservation districts are responsible for issuing abandoned mine drainage, which is point source permits to industrial operations, municipal prevalent throughout the Bennett wastewater treatment plants, concentrated animal feeding Branch subwatershed operations, and households. In addition, any disturbance of land from one to five acres requires an NPDES permit, even if it is a non-point source. The exceptions are for tilling, agricultural practices that are not part of a concentrated animal feeding operation (CAFO), and most logging disturbances that are less than 25 acres. However, many of these activities still require a soil and erosion control permit (DEP7). Non-point Source Pollution Non-point source pollution is pollution that enters a waterbody through an undefined source, usually in the form of polluted groundwater discharge or runoff from places, such as agricultural fields, logging operations, residential lawns, and streets. Non-point source pollution comprises the majority of pollution, mainly because they cannot be as easily regulated. Usually, AMD is considered non-point source pollution because it is created in large, poorly-defined areas that often discharge into a stream in a diffuse manner. Efforts to reduce non-point source pollution are often conducted on a state or local level through programs to implement best management practices (BMPs) offered by conservation districts and other agencies and organizations. 3-15 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources Major Sources of Impairment While the majority of the streams in the Sinnemahoning Creek watershed are pristine and highquality waterways, pollution and impacts are present, yet isolated. Abandoned mine drainage impacts are particularly present in the Bennett Branch subwatershed and in a few isolated streams elsewhere in the watershed. Since a majority of the watershed in forested and many dirt and gravel roads exist, erosion and sedimentation impacts are present throughout the project area. An isolated train derailment caused severe pollution impacts in the Sinnemahoning Portage Creek, which flows into the Driftwood Branch, causing fish kills and severe degradation to those fisheries. The vast expanse of protected and public lands bodes well for the continued conservation of this important tributary to the West Branch Susquehanna River. Abandoned Mine Drainage Abandoned mine drainage (AMD) is a significant cause of impairment throughout the Bennett Branch sub-watershed. It also is a concern in Sterling Run and West Creek, as are minimal AMD impacts affecting Parker Run and Canoe Run. AMD is formed when the fractured bedrock of abandoned mines allows rain, groundwater, and oxygen to come into contact with coal seam. Chemical reactions result in water contaminated with dissolved metals, including iron, manganese, and aluminum. Acid mine drainage is formed when sulfur-oxidizing bacteria in rock converts inorganic sulfur to sulfate and sulfuric acid in water. If there are insufficient neutralizing compounds, the water will become acidic. The polluted water discharges into streams and groundwater through mine openings, springs, and seeps. When the water is exposed to oxygen in the air, the metals will precipitate, or drop out of the solution as solids, creating even more acid and coating stream bottoms with silt-like metals. High levels of iron and aluminum can poison fish and threaten drinking water supplies (Fripp, Ziemkiewicz, & Charkavorki, 2000). Metal siltation and altered pH also affect the survivability of aquatic macroinvertebrates, which form the base of the food chain and the basis of a healthy, functioning stream ecosystem. Underground mining refers to practices that extract coal by tunneling into the earth. Surface mining involves extracting deposits of mineral resources close to the surface. A common surface mining method is strip mining, which removes the layers of rock directly over the coal seam. Remediation refers to treatment methods used to minimize or remove pollution from a contaminated area. The goals of AMD remediation are to reduce metals and water acidity or to raise water pH to acceptable levels. AMD treatment falls into two broad categories—active and passive. Active treatment involves the physical addition of a neutralizing agent, such as chemicals and lime, to the source of the AMD or directly into the stream. Passive treatment includes a variety of techniques to raise the pH and reduce metal loading using a constructed treatment system or containment project, such as a wetland or limestone drain. While initial costs for passive treatment can be higher, passive treatment generally requires less maintenance than active treatment systems (Turner et al.). The type of treatment system used is highly dependent on the type and concentration of metals present in the AMD and site conditions. Chemical treatment is typically implemented through passive and active methods, such as the addition of lime or the use of limestone-lined ponds. If it is necessary to reduce metal concentrations and raise pH, then a variety of passive treatments may be used, including an anaerobic wetland, aerobic wetland, or combination of systems (Pennsylvania State University). Previously mined areas can also be dangerous, with unstable portals and roofs associated with underground mines and dangerous high walls and spoil banks associated with surface mines. In some cases, reclamation techniques, such as removal of refuse and/or re-grading and re-vegetating, can be used to make a site safer and reduce discharges. Some funding for mine reclamation is available through the Office of Surface Mining and other state and federal programs. See the Land Resources chapter for information about the impacts of mining on the 3-16 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources landscape and for funding opportunities. Underground and surface mining continue to be utilized. As more profitable coal seams are mined in Pennsylvania, the reclaiming of old areas and targeting of once unprofitable coal seams may become more cost effective. Table 3-3. Public Sewage Facilities Municipality Cameron County Driftwood Borough Emporium Borough Gibson Township Grove Township Lumber Township Portage Township Shippen Township Clearfield County Goshen Township Huston Township Public Sewage No Yes No No No N/A Yes Capacity Mid-Cameron Authority 1 million gallons per day Mid-Cameron Authority 1 million gallons per day Huston Township Sewer Authority Clearfield Municipal Authority N/A N/A No Lawrence Township Yes Yes Clinton County East Keating Township West Keating Township No No McKean County Norwich Township No Elk County Benezette Township Fox Township Jay Township Jones Township Facility No Yes Yes Saint Marys, City of Yes Yes Potter County Austin Borough Eulalia Township Homer Township Keating Township Portage Township Summit Township Sylvania Township West Branch Township Wharton Township Yes No No No No N/A No No N/A Fox Township Sewer Authority Jay Township Authority Johnsonburg Municipal Authority Saint Marys Sewage Authority N/A N/A N/A N/A Austin Borough Sewer N/A 3-17 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources Sewage Waste Contamination from both public sewage treatment systems and private on-lot septic systems is a potential source of water pollution throughout the watershed. Public sewage services are concentrated in boroughs and more populated townships. All public systems must have a DEP point discharge permit to discharge treated wastewater, which may contain small amounts of nutrients and bacteria. Public and private systems have the potential to impact stream health and public water supplies, particularly if they are malfunctioning. This could cause drinking water contamination and increase drinking water treatment costs. Rural, on-lot septic systems typically contribute a greater amount of sewage waste to streams when they are not maintained properly. Conventional systems consist of a large tank designed to hold about two days worth of wastewater and allow solids to settle out, as well as a drain field that distributes the wastewater so it can slowly absorb into the soil. Septic systems remove much of the bacteria, but are not very effective at removing nitrogen. They often fail when the drain field becomes clogged or saturated, and may cause raw sewage to contaminate streams and groundwater. These systems should be pumped out every few years to prevent buildup and clogs (BF Environmental Consultants, 2004). More advanced on-lot systems are designed to remove nitrogen by moving effluent through a series of chambers containing different kinds of microbes. These systems have pumps, moving parts, and other components that need to be inspected every few years. These more advanced systems can remove twice the amount of nitrogen as conventional systems, but are more expensive and can have higher environmental impacts if not pumped out (BF Environmental Consultants, 2004). Due to the remoteness of the watershed, there are few isolated population centers that offer public sewage systems for residents and businesses. Only nine of the 27 municipalities reported having public sewage services within the project area (Table 3-3). Of those, five were in the process of upgrading or foresaw the need to upgrade within sewage facilities within the next ten years. Of all the municipalities, including those that do not offer public sewage, nine municipalities were anticipating upgrades or considering the establishment of public sewage facilities. Pharmaceuticals For years, the public was instructed to flush unwanted or unused medicines down the toilet. Many sewage treatment facilities are not designed to remove specific pharmaceuticals from wastewater. In light of recent research, this practice is now being discouraged due to the potential pollution impacts to aquatic ecosystems and drinking water supplies. Hormones, antibiotics, and over 100 different pharmaceuticals have been found in waterways around the world (Hemminger, 2005). Hormones, vitamins, and other chemicals within those medicines may affect water quality, the reproduction and development of aquatic organisms, as well as human health. Fish caught within the Allegheny River near Pittsburgh, Pa. exhibited sexual mutations, such as feminized males, which may be caused by prolonged exposure or accumulated levels of estrogen hormones in the water. Due to the rising concern of chemical and hormone pollution from pharmaceuticals, many conservation districts and watershed groups have begun organizing unwanted household medicine collections to prevent the potential contamination of waterways. One major challenge to organizing such and event is that pharmacists and police officers must be present at the collection to monitor controlled substances. More information about pharmaceutical pollution may be obtained by contacting your local Penn State Cooperative Extension or county conservation district. 3-18 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources Nitrates Nitrates are commonly used in fertilizers and in industrial applications, but are also found in rodenticides (pesticide used to kill rodents) and food preservatives (EPA, 2007b). Nitrates also are a component of animal (including human) waste. Nitrates are easily soluble, and do not attach to soils, so it easily migrates to contaminate groundwater. Nitrates do not evaporate, and remain in water until ingested by plants or other organisms. Nitrates have been found to contaminate unprotected wells (U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry, 2001). Nitrates can pollute streams by direct discharge of industrial effluent, runoff from agricultural lands, and faulty septic and municipal sewage systems. High levels of nitrates in water can result in eutrophication and algae blooms, which disrupt oxygen levels when the material decays, causing the death of aquatic life (EPA, 2006b). Nitrate pollution can also prove to be a risk to human health. Infants, pregnant women, and nursing mothers are particularly at risk of adverse health effects in association with high levels of nitrates in drinking water. Methemoglobinemia, also known as “blue baby syndrome,” is a syndrome that occurs in infants, due to the unique way the body metabolizes nitrate at that age. Infants metabolize nitrate into nitrite, which robs blood cells of oxygen, thus creating a blue coloration in body tissues. The most serious consequences of this condition are coma and death (Knobeloch et al., 2000). Nitrates also have been linked to certain types of cancer in young children and adults, as well. Sodium Hydroxide On June 30, 2006, a Norfolk Southern freight train traveling through the watershed derailed in McKean County near the town of Gardeau and spilled approximately 42,000 gallons of caustic sodium hydroxide into Sinnemahoning Portage Creek. The spill traveled over 30 miles, flowing down Sinnemahoning Portage Creek to Driftwood Branch and on down the Sinnemahoning Creek mainstem toward the West Branch Susquehanna River. The subsequent poisoning resulted in the death of thousands of aquatic animals. Shortly after the accident, in July, PFBC officials conducted a thorough assessment of the fish, amphibians, and other aquatic life of Sinnemahoning Portage Creek, Driftwood Branch, and Sinnemahoning Creek to gather data on the far-reaching impacts of the spill (Hartle, 2006). Fish kill resulting from the sodium hydroxide spill as a result of the Norfolk Southern train derailment along Sinnemahoning Portage Creek in 2006 Photo credit: Jim Zoschg, Jr. Sinnemahoning Portage Creek is designated as an EV stream from its headwaters to Cowley Run. The train accident occurred within this stretch, severely degrading a great portion of these exceptional value waters and devastating the aquatic life that depended upon it. The sodium hydroxide that was spilled into the creek is known to cause caustic chemical burns. It was estimated that up to 98 percent of the aquatic macroinvertebrates in the stream were lost as a result of the poisoning, and all fish within an 11 mile stretch immediately downstream of the spill site were killed. Not only did the chemical spill kill fish and other aquatic organisms for miles downstream; but due to the potential health risk posed to humans, a warning against recreation within those waters was issued to the public (Hartle, 2006). Fishermen would notice the impact as well. Prior to the train derailment, Sinnemahoning Portage Creek was managed as a Class A Wild Trout stream from the headwaters downstream to Cowley Run. Naturally reproducing wild brook and brown trout were found throughout this section. Wild trout also 3-19 Sinnemahoning Creek Watershed Conservation Plan Chapter 3. Water Resources inhabited Sinnemahoning Portage Creek from Cowley Run to the mouth, and this section was also supplemented with stocked trout. Due to the severity of the fish kill, it was estimated that these wild trout populations could take up to six years to recover (Hartle, 2006). In 2007, Norfolk Southern agreed to a damage settlement with the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania for $7.35 million, which was distributed evenly to DEP and PFBC to support conservation initiatives in the Sinnemahoning watershed, as well as throughout the counties in the region. The funds will be used for restoration of Sinnemahoning Portage Creek, as well