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Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 370 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: CHAPTER FOURTEEN Speaking to Inform Types of Informative Speeches: Analysis and Organization Speeches About Speeches About Speeches About Speeches About Objects Processes Events Concepts Guidelines for Informative Speaking Don’t Overestimate What the Audience Knows Relate the Subject Directly to the Audience Don’t Be Too Technical Avoid Abstractions Personalize Your Ideas Sample Speech with Commentary 370 Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 371 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 372 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: 372 CHAPTER 14 Speaking to Inform N Chapter Focus This chapter introduces students to the task of sharing information accurately, clearly, and engagingly. After exploring four major kinds of speeches to inform, it presents five guidelines for successful informative discourse. It concludes by reprinting a full sample speech with commentary to help students construct their own informative speeches. For a complete outline of the chapter, see the Instructor’s Manual, pp. 296–299. informative speech A speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding. atalya Petrovich is the advertising manager for a company that sells computer equipment such as routers, network cards, and wireless extensions. She began that particular workday by meeting with her staff to discuss the company’s new line of network cards. She pointed out the special features of each piece of equipment, explained what other equipment was compatible with each, and answered questions about them. Later that morning, Natalya had a long talk with the head of the company’s technical division. “Can you show me,” she asked, “how to use the new router we’re developing? I need to double-check the ad copy my staff has drafted.” Natalya then took notes as the head of the technical division went through the uses of the new router. Natalya also asked questions along the way to make sure she understood exactly how the router worked. In the afternoon, Natalya met with the company’s president and sales director to go over the current year’s budget for her department, as well as her projections for the new fiscal year. She reviewed advertising campaigns and sales data, assessed the performance of each member of her staff, and then presented her projections of staffing requirements for the next eighteen months. Afterward, the president complimented Natalya for giving such a clear presentation. “Anyone who can communicate that well,” the president said, “is going to go a long way in this company.” Natalya doesn’t consider herself a “public speaker,” but much of her job involves absorbing and communicating information clearly and effectively. Although Natalya is just a single person, her experience is not unusual. In one survey, graduates from five U.S. colleges were asked to rank the speech skills most important to their jobs. They rated informative speaking number one. In another survey, 62 percent of the respondents said they used informative speaking “almost constantly.”1 Public speaking to inform occurs in a wide range of everyday situations. What kinds of people make informative speeches? The business manager explaining next year’s budget. The architect reviewing plans for a new building. The military officer briefing subordinates. The union leader informing members about details of a new contract. The church worker outlining plans for a fund drive. The teacher in a classroom. There are endless situations in which people need to inform others. Competence in this form of communication will prove valuable to you throughout your life. One of your first classroom assignments probably will be to deliver an informative speech in which you will act as a lecturer or teacher. You may describe an object, show how something works, report on an event, explain a concept. Your aim will be to convey knowledge and understanding—not to advocate a cause. Your speech will be judged in light of three general criteria: Is the information communicated accurately? Is the information communicated clearly? Is the information made meaningful and interesting to the audience? Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 373 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: Types of Informative Speeches: Analysis and Organization 373 In this chapter, we will look at four types of informative speeches and the basic principles of informative speaking. Along the way, we will apply various general principles discussed in previous chapters. Types of Informative Speeches: Analysis and Organization There are many ways to classify informative speeches. Here we focus on the four kinds of informative speeches you are most likely to give in your speech class: (1) speeches about objects, (2) speeches about processes, (3) speeches about events, and (4) speeches about concepts. These are not hard-and-fast categories, but they provide an effective method of analyzing and organizing informative speeches. Speeches About Objects As the word is used here, “objects” include anything that is visible, tangible, and stable in form. Objects may have moving parts or be alive; they may include places, structures, animals, even people. Here are examples of subjects for speeches about objects: Sitting Bull stock market the human eye Elizabeth Cady Stanton seaweed digital music players comic strips Anything that is visible, tangible, and stable in form. Mars Rover Grand Canyon object U.S. Army You will not have time to tell your classmates everything about any of these subjects. Instead, you will choose a specific purpose that focuses on one aspect of your subject. Working from the topics presented above, the following are examples of good specific purpose statements for informative speeches about objects: To inform my audience about the social functions of comic strips. To inform my audience about the geological features of the Grand Canyon. To inform my audience about the role of Elizabeth Cady Stanton in the U.S. women’s rights movement. To inform my audience what to look for when buying a digital music player. To inform my audience about the commercial uses of seaweed. Notice how precise these statements are. As we saw in Chapter 4, you should select a specific purpose that is not too broad to achieve in the allotted time. “To inform my audience about Pablo Picasso” is far too general for a classroom speech. “To inform my audience about the major contributions of Cross-Reference See Chapter 4 for full discussion of selecting speech topics and developing specific purpose statements. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 374 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: 374 CHAPTER 14 Speaking to Inform Pablo Picasso to modern art” is more exact and is a purpose you could reasonably hope to achieve in a brief talk. If your specific purpose is to explain the history or evolution of your subject, you will put your speech in chronological order. For example: Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the major achievements of Frederick Douglass. Central Idea: Main Points: Teaching Tip Make sure that students understand the informative speech assignment and that they do not confuse it with speaking to persuade. Although every speech has the potential to persuade depending on how it is interpreted by the audience, there is, in most cases, a sharp difference between a speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding and one designed to change listeners’ attitudes, beliefs, or actions. For more on the differences between informative and persuasive speeches, see the Teaching Tip on p. 376. Although born in slavery, Frederick Douglass became one of the greatest figures in American history. I. Douglass spent the first 20 years of his life as a slave in Maryland. II. After escaping to the North, Douglass became a leader in the abolitionist movement to end slavery. III. During the Civil War, Douglass helped establish black regiments in the Union Army. IV. After the war, Douglass was a tireless champion of equal rights for his race. If your specific purpose is to describe the main features of your subject, you may organize your speech in spatial order: Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the differences among the five major Hawaiian Islands. Central Idea: The five major Hawaiian islands run from Kauai in the northwest to Hawaii in the southeast. Main Points: I. The northernmost of the major islands, Kauai averages 485 inches of rain a year, making it one of the wettest spots on Earth. II. Southeast of Kauai is Oahu, home of Honolulu and the most heavily populated of all the islands. III. Located 26 miles from Oahu, Molokai is known for its friendliness and its large population of native Hawaiians. IV. Eight miles to the southeast of Oahu lies Maui, famous for its spectacular landscapes, white sandy beaches, and crystal-clear water. V. The southernmost major island is Hawaii, known as the Big Island, which is twice as large as all the other islands put together. As often as not, you will find that speeches about objects fall into topical order. Here is an example: Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the major alternative-fuel cars now being developed. Central Idea: The major alternative-fuel cars now being developed are powered by electricity, natural gas, methanol, or hydrogen. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 375 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: Types of Informative Speeches: Analysis and Organization Main Points: 375 I. One kind of alternative-fuel car is powered by electricity. II. A second kind of alternative-fuel car is powered by natural gas. III. A third kind of alternative-fuel car is powered by methanol. IV. A fourth kind of alternative-fuel car is powered by hydrogen. No matter which of these organizational methods you use—chronological, spatial, or topical—be sure to follow the guidelines discussed in Chapter 8: (1) limit your speech to between two and five main points; (2) keep main points separate; (3) try to use the same pattern of wording for all main points; (4) balance the amount of time devoted to each main point. Cross-Reference See Chapter 8 for full discussion of methods and guidelines for organizing the main points of a speech. Speeches About Processes A process is a systematic series of actions that leads to a specific result or product. Speeches about processes explain how something is made, how something is done, or how something works. Here are examples of good specific purpose statements for speeches about processes: To inform my audience how hurricanes develop. process A systematic series of actions that leads to a specific result or product. To inform my audience how to write an effective job resumé. To inform my audience how to save people from drowning. To inform my audience how oriental rugs are made. To inform my audience how to perform Pilates exercises. As these examples suggest, there are two kinds of informative speeches about processes. One kind explains a process so that listeners will understand it better. Your goal in this kind of speech is to have your audience know the steps of the process and how they relate to one another. If your specific purpose is “To inform my audience how underwater robots work,” you will explain the basic tasks and mechanisms of underwater robots. You will not instruct your listeners on how they can operate an underwater robot. A second kind of speech explains a process so listeners will be better able to perform the process themselves. Your goal in this kind of speech is to have the audience learn a particular skill. Suppose your specific purpose is “To inform my audience how to take pictures like a professional photographer.” You will present the basic techniques of professional photography and show your listeners how they can utilize those techniques. You want the audience to be able to use the techniques as a result of your speech. Both kinds of speeches about processes may require visual aids. At the very least, you should prepare a chart outlining the steps or techniques of your process. In some cases you will need to demonstrate the steps or techniques by performing them in front of your audience. One student did sleight-of-hand magic tricks to show the techniques behind Teaching Tip Some instructors require that students choose a single topic for both the informative and persuasive speeches. In the informative speech, students provide background information about the topic; in the persuasive speech, they advocate a policy with regard to the same topic. Such an approach eliminates the need for students to spend time selecting two speech topics, and it allows them to research a single topic in more depth than would otherwise be the case. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 376 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: 376 CHAPTER 14 Speaking to Inform Teaching Tip Students sometimes propose topics for informative speeches about events or concepts that would be more suitable for a persuasive speech on a question of fact. “To inform my audience of the scientific evidence supporting the existence of intelligent extraterrestrial life” is an acceptable specific purpose statement for an informative speech as long as the evidence presented in the speech is truly scientific. In contrast, “To inform my audience about the existence of intelligent extraterrestrial life” is not appropriate for an informative speech. Why? Because there is no consensus in the scientific community about the existence of intelligent extraterrestrial life. Some experts believe in such life; others do not. Because the facts of the matter are so hotly contested, this subject would be better treated as a persuasive speech on a question of fact, with the specific purpose statement “To persuade my audience that there is intelligent extraterrestrial life in the universe.” For full discussion of persuasive speeches on questions of fact, see Chapter 15, pp. 406–409. them. Another acted out the basic methods of mime. Yet another executed elementary tai chi maneuvers. In each case, the demonstration not only clarified the speaker’s process, but captivated the audience as well. (If you are using visual aids of any kind, be sure to review Chapter 13 before your speech.) When informing about a process, you will usually arrange your speech in chronological order, explaining the process step by step from beginning to end. For example: Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the major rituals of a traditional Bengali wedding in India. Central Idea: A traditional Bengali wedding consists of a series of rituals that take place before the wedding, during the wedding ceremony, and after the wedding. Main Points: I. Pre-wedding rituals include offering reverence to the ancestors of the bride and groom, giving gifts to the bride and groom, and dressing the bride in traditional fashion. II. Rituals during the wedding ceremony include an exchange of garlands between the bride and groom, the chanting of mantras, and the giving away of the bride by her uncle. III. Post-wedding rituals include a celebration at the home of the bride’s family, a reception at the home of the groom’s family, and the formal exit of the bride and groom to their nuptial quarters. Sometimes, rather than leading your audience through a process step by step, you will focus on the major principles or techniques involved in performing the process. Then you will organize your speech in topical order. Each main point will deal with a separate principle or technique. For example: Specific Purpose: To inform my audience of the common methods used by stage magicians to perform their tricks. Central Idea: Stage magicians use two common methods to perform their tricks—mechanical devices and sleight of hand. Main Points: I. Many magic tricks rely on mechanical devices that may require little skill by the magician. II. Other magic tricks depend on the magician’s skill in fooling people by sleight-of-hand manipulation. Concise organization is especially important in speeches about processes. You must make sure each step in the process is clear and easy to follow. If your process has more than four or five steps, group the steps into units so as to limit the number of main points. Otherwise, you will have too many main points for listeners to grasp and recall. For example, Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 377 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: Types of Informative Speeches: Analysis and Organization 377 Informative speeches can be organized in many ways. A speech on the growth of modern art would likely be in chronological order, while a speech on the techniques of painting would fall into topical order. in a speech explaining how to set up a home aquarium, a student presented the following main points: I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. First you must choose the size of your tank. Then you must determine the shape of your tank. You must also decide how much you can afford to pay for a tank. Once you have the tank, you need a filter system. A heater is also absolutely necessary. You must also get an air pump. Once this is done, you need to choose gravel for the tank. You will also need plants. Other decorations will round out the effects of your aquarium. Now you are ready to add the fish. Freshwater fish are the most common. Saltwater fish are more expensive and require special care. Not surprisingly, this was too much for the audience to follow. The speaker should have organized the points something like this: I. The first step in establishing a home aquarium is choosing a tank. A. The size of the tank is important. B. The shape of the tank is important. C. The cost of the tank is important. II. The second step in establishing a home aquarium is equipping the tank. A. You will need a filter system. B. You will need a heater. C. You will need an air pump. D. You will need gravel. Class Activity It is crucial that students understand the importance of limiting the number of main points in an informative speech about a process. For a helpful activity on this subject, see Applying the Power of Public Speaking at the end of this chapter. For discussion of the activity, see the Instructor’s Manual, pp. 303–304. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 378 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: 378 CHAPTER 14 Speaking to Inform E. You will need plants. F. You may also want other decorations. III. The third step in establishing a home aquarium is adding the fish. A. Freshwater fish are the most common for home aquariums. B. Saltwater fish are more expensive and require special care. As you can see, the subpoints cover the same territory as that originally covered by the twelve main points. But three main points are much easier to understand and remember than twelve. Speeches About Events event Anything that happens or is regarded as happening. The Random House Dictionary defines an event as “anything that happens or is regarded as happening.” By this definition, the following are examples of suitable subjects for informative speeches about events: Holocaust civil rights movement Paralympics figure skating job interviews Cinco de Mayo tsunamis attention deficit disorder Speech Assignment There are many possible approaches to the informative speech assignment, one of which is to have students explain a significant aspect of a culture other than their own. For an explanation of such an assignment, see the Instructor’s Manual, p. 34. For a more involved approach that combines attention to cultural diversity with small-group discussion and informative speaking, see Kimberly A. Powell, “Increasing Appreciation for Diversity Through the Group Culture Speech,” in Selections from the Speech Communication Teacher, 1994–1996, pp. 28–29, which accompanies The Art of Public Speaking. mountain climbing Battle of Little Big Horn As usual, you will need to narrow your focus and pick a specific purpose you can accomplish in a short speech. Here are examples of good specific purpose statements for informative speeches about events: To inform my audience about the equipment used in mountain climbing. To inform my audience of the festivities at Mexico’s Cinco de Mayo celebration. To inform my audience about what happened at the Battle of Little Big Horn. To inform my audience about the techniques of therapeutic massage. To inform my audience about the experience of working on an archaeological dig. As you can see, there are many ways to discuss events. If your specific purpose is to recount the history of an event, you will organize your speech in chronological order, relating the incidents one after another in the order they occurred. For example: Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the history of the Paralympics. Central Idea: Main Points: Olympic-style games for athletes with physical disabilities have made great strides since the first competition almost 60 years ago. I. What would eventually become the Paralympics began in 1948 with a sports competition in Great Britain involving World War II veterans with spinal cord injuries. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 379 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: Types of Informative Speeches: Analysis and Organization THE INTERNET 379 Connection Do you need quick access to facts about your informative speech topic? Log on to the Internet Public Library’s Subject Collection (www.ipl.org/div/subject/), which offers links to a wide range of high-quality resources chosen for their accurate and reliable information. If you are giving an informative speech on a topic with multicultural dimensions, you may find the following Web sites useful: Yahoo! Regional (http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/) ONLINE LEARNING CENTER You can link to these Web sites at www.mhhe.com/lucas9. WWW Virtual Library: American Indians (www.hanksville.org/ NAresources) Asian American Studies Resources (www.sunysb.edu/library/ eresources/www/asian.html) Latino/Hispanic Resources (www-rcf.usc.edu/~cmmr/Latino.html) African American Web Connection (www.aawc.com) II. In 1952 the event took on an international flavor when athletes from the Netherlands took part. III. The first official Paralympic Games for international athletes with disabilities took place in Rome in 1960. IV. In 2001 an agreement was signed allowing for the Paralympic Games to be held alongside both the summer and winter Olympic Games. Instead of recounting the history of an event, you might take a more analytical approach and explain its causes and/or effects. In such a case, you will organize your speech in causal order. Let’s say your specific purpose is “To inform my audience why so many lives were lost when a major tsunami hit Southeast Asia in 2004.” Working from cause to effect, your outline might look like this: Specific Purpose: To inform my audience why so many lives were lost when a major tsunami hit Southeast Asia in 2004. Central Idea: On December 26, 2004, a catastrophic tsunami hit unexpectedly and took the lives of more than 200,000 people caught near the seashore. Main Points: I. There were two major causes for the great loss of life when the tsunami struck. A. Many resorts and fishing villages were built directly on the beach. B. There was no warning system for tsunamis in that part of the world. Speech Assignment For a different kind of informative speech assignment, have students inform their classmates about a prominent public speaker, either contemporary or historical. Although I have used this assignment most frequently for the final speech of the term, the speech can be reduced in length and complexity so as to be appropriate earlier. For fuller explanation, see the Instructor’s Manual, p. 37. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 380 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: 380 CHAPTER 14 Speaking to Inform II. The effects of these two situations were disastrous. A. There was no time for people to escape to higher ground. B. Thousands of people who were vacationing, living, or working on the beach were swept away. Teaching Tip Many instructors require that students use a visual aid in the informative speech— regardless of whether the speech is about a process, an object, a concept, or an event. Not only does this ensure that all students gain experience using a visual aid in at least one of their speeches, it also increases audience interest, reduces the speaker’s nervousness, and encourages extemporaneous delivery. For full discussion of visual aids, see Chapter 13. There are other ways to deal with an event besides telling what happened or why it happened. Indeed, you can approach an event from almost any angle or combination of angles—features, origins, implications, benefits, future developments, and so forth. In such cases, you will put your speech together in topical order. And you should make sure your main points subdivide the subject logically and consistently. For instance: Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the four traditional events in women’s gymnastics. Central Idea: The four traditional events in women’s gymnastics are floor exercise, vault, balance beam, and uneven parallel bars. Main Points: I. The floor exercise combines dancing, acrobatics, and tumbling. II. The vault features explosive strength and dramatic midair maneuvers. III. The balance beam requires precise routines and perfect coordination. IV. The uneven parallel bars demand great strength, flexibility, and agility. Speeches About Concepts concept A belief, theory, idea, notion, principle, or the like. Concepts include beliefs, theories, ideas, principles, and the like. They are more abstract than objects, processes, or events. The following are some examples of subjects for speeches about concepts: Confucianism film theory philosophies of education principles of feminism original-intent doctrine existentialism concepts of science theories of psychology religious beliefs international law Taking a few of these general subjects, here are some specific purpose statements for speeches about concepts: To inform my audience about the basic principles of Confucianism. To inform my audience about the doctrine of original intent in constitutional interpretation. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 381 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: Types of Informative Speeches: Analysis and Organization 381 The principles of informative speaking are applicable to a wide range of situations. Knowing those principles will help you whenever you need to convey knowledge and understanding. To inform my audience about the different philosophies of education in Europe and the United States. To inform my audience about the concept of patriarchy in feminist thought. To inform my audience about the major principles of film theory. Speeches about concepts are usually organized in topical order. One common approach is to enumerate the main features or aspects of your concept. For example: Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the basic principles of nonviolent resistance. Central Idea: The basic principles of nonviolent resistance stress using moral means to achieve social change, refusing to inflict violence on one’s enemies, and using suffering as a social force. Main Points: I. The first major principle of nonviolent resistance is that social change must be achieved by moral means. II. The second major principle of nonviolent resistance is that one should not inflict violence on one’s enemies. III. The third major principle of nonviolent resistance is that suffering can be a powerful social force. A more complex approach is to define the concept you are dealing with, identify its major elements, and illustrate it with specific examples. An Speech Assignment Providing clear explanations of complex ideas is one of the most difficult challenges facing a public speaker. For a valuable exploration of this aspect of informative speaking, see Katherine Rowan, “The Speech to Explain Difficult Ideas,” in Selections from the Speech Communication Teacher 1986–1991, pp. 69–71, which accompanies The Art of Public Speaking. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 382 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: 382 CHAPTER 14 Speaking to Inform excellent instance of this came in a student speech about Islam: Specific Purpose: To inform my audience of the basic principles of Islam. Central Idea: Main Points: Overhead Transparency For ease of classroom discussion, examples of specific purpose statements, central ideas, and main points for all four kinds of informative speeches discussed in this chapter are included in the binder of full-color overhead transparencies that accompanies The Art of Public Speaking. The beliefs of Islam can be traced to the prophet Muhammad, are written in the Koran, and have produced a number of sects. I. Islam was founded by the prophet Muhammad in the early 600s. II. The teachings of Islam are written in the Koran, the holy book of Islam. III. Today Islam is divided into a number of sects, the largest of which are the Sunnis and the Shiites. Yet another approach is to explain competing schools of thought about the same subject. For example: Specific Purpose: To inform my audience of the major arguments for and against homeschooling. CD 1:VIDEO 14.1 Supporters and opponents of homeschooling both have legitimate arguments. Main Points: View an excerpt from “Feng Shui.” Central Idea: I. Supporters of homeschooling argue that parents are the best judge of the values and academic subjects their children should be taught. II. Opponents of homeschooling argue that society requires all children to learn a common set of academic subjects and civic values. As you can see from these examples, speeches about concepts are often more complex than other kinds of informative speeches. Concepts are abstract and can be very hard to explain to someone who is learning about them for the first time. When explaining concepts, pay special attention to avoiding technical language, to defining terms clearly, and to using examples and comparisons to illustrate the concepts and make them understandable to your listeners. Look, for example, at CD 1, Video 14.1, which presents an excerpt from a student speech about the ancient Chinese art of feng shui. Notice how clearly the student defines feng shui and then explains the concept of chi, which is the most important factor in feng shui. If you give an informative speech about a concept, give special thought to how you can make that concept clear and comprehensible to your listeners. The lines dividing speeches about objects, processes, events, and concepts are not absolute. Some subjects could fit into more than one category, depending on how you develop the speech. You could treat the Declaration of Independence as an object—by explaining its history and its role in the American Revolution. Or you could deal with the meaning of the Declaration, in which case you would be speaking about a concept—an idea bound up with freedom and democracy. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 383 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: Guidelines for Informative Speaking 383 To take another example, a speech about the destruction of ancient Pompeii by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius would probably deal with its subject as an event, but a speech on what causes volcanoes to erupt would most likely treat its subject as a process. The important step is to decide how you will handle your subject—as an object, a process, an event, or a concept. Once you do that, you can develop the speech accordingly. One final word about organizing your informative speech: Regardless of which method of organization you use, be sure to give your listeners plenty of help in sorting out facts and ideas during the speech. One way is by using enough transitions, internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts (see Chapter 8). Another way is to follow the old maxim: “Tell ’em what you’re going to say; say it; then tell ’em what you’ve said.” In other words, preview the main points of your speech in the introduction, and summarize them in the conclusion. This will make your speech not only easier to understand but also easier to remember. Guidelines for Informative Speaking All the previous chapters of this book relate to the principles of informative speaking. Choosing a topic and specific purpose, analyzing the audience, gathering materials, choosing supporting details, organizing the speech, using words to communicate meaning, delivering the speech—all of these must be done effectively if your informative speech is to be a success. Here we emphasize five points that will help you avoid the mistakes that plague many informative speakers. Don’t Overestimate What the Audience Knows In a speech about meteorology, a student said, “If modern methods of weather forecasting had existed in 1900, the Galveston hurricane disaster would never have taken place.” Then he was off to other matters, leaving his listeners to puzzle over what the Galveston hurricane was, when it happened, and what kind of destruction it wreaked. The speaker assumed that the audience already knew these things. But his classmates were not experts on meteorology or on American history. Even those who had heard of the hurricane had only a fuzzy notion of it. Some were not even sure about the location of Galveston. Only the speaker knew that the hurricane, which killed more than 6,000 people when it unexpectedly struck Galveston, Texas, on September 8, 1900, is still the deadliest natural disaster in American history. As many speakers have discovered, it is easy to overestimate the audience’s stock of information. In most informative speeches, your listeners will be only vaguely knowledgeable (at best) about the details of your topic. (Otherwise, there would not be much need for an informative speech!) Therefore, you must lead your listeners step by step, without any shortcuts. You cannot assume they will know what you mean. Rather, you must be sure to explain everything so thoroughly that they cannot help but understand. As you work on your speech, always consider Class Activity Divide the class into small groups and have them work on the first Exercise for Critical Thinking at the end of this chapter. This exercise gives students practice in developing specific purpose statements for informative speeches and helps them distinguish among informative speeches about objects, concepts, processes, and events. For additional discussion of the exercise, see the Instructor’s Manual, p. 300. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 384 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: 384 CHAPTER 14 Speaking to Inform whether it will be clear to someone who is hearing about the topic for the first time. Suppose you are talking about Roth IRAs, a type of individual retirement account approved by Congress in 1998. Although some of your classmates might have heard of Roth IRAs, you cannot assume they have a firm grasp of the subject. So you should start by telling them what a Roth IRA is. How will you tell them? Here’s one way: Introduced in 1998, a Roth IRA is a type of individual retirement account in which annual contributions are made with after-tax dollars but in which earnings and distributions are tax-free once the holder of the account is 59.5 years of age or older. Class Activity Divide the class into small groups. Have each group select a topic from among the following: To someone who knows a lot about economics this is perfectly clear. But someone who does not will probably get lost along the way. The tone of the statement is that of a speaker reviewing information already familiar to the audience—not of a speaker introducing new information. Here, in contrast, is another explanation of Roth IRAs: How to tie a shoelace How to change a car tire The basic rules of baseball How to operate a digital camera How to program a TiVo The basic rules of Monopoly Give each group 15 minutes to work out a 2-minute explanation designed for an audience that knows absolutely nothing about the topic. Each group should select one of its members to present the explanation orally to the class. For further discussion of this activity, see the third Additional Exercise for Critical Thinking on p. 311 of the Instructor’s Manual. What is a Roth Individual Retirement Account, or IRA? Let me explain with an example. Imagine yourself a few years down the road as a recent college graduate. Your job pays a good salary, but you’re still concerned with your finances and your future. After all, everyone keeps telling you to start planning for retirement early. In addition to Social Security, you have a number of retirement-planning options. One is the Roth IRA. Suppose you place $4,000 into a Roth IRA every year. Suppose also that your money grows at an average rate of 8 percent a year. If you start putting money in at age 25 and withdraw it at age 65, you will have an account worth more than $1.2 million. Moreover, unlike other retirement accounts, you won’t have to pay taxes on your $1.2 million, even if you take it out all at once. So you can see why Roth IRAs are so popular. You win both ways—your money grows tax-free and it is free of taxes when you withdraw it. This statement is clear and simple. Its tone is that of a teacher unraveling a new subject. Is it too simple? Will your classmates feel as if you are talking down to them? Almost certainly not. Many students hesitate to speak simply because they are afraid they will sound simpleminded. They think they need big words and complicated sentences to sound intelligent. But nothing could be farther from the truth. The test of a good speaker is to communicate even the most complex ideas clearly and simply. Anyone can go to a book and find a learned-sounding definition of a Roth IRA like the one above. But to say in plain English what a Roth IRA is—that takes hard work and creative thinking. Also, remember that readers can study a printed passage again and again until they extract its meaning, but listeners don’t have that luxury. They must understand what you say in the time it takes you to say it. The more you assume they know about the topic, the greater your chances of being misunderstood. If you have circulated a questionnaire among your listeners before the speech (see Chapter 5, pages 128–131), you should have a good idea of their Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 385 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: Guidelines for Informative Speaking 385 Whether in the classroom or out, effective informative speakers work on communicating their ideas in clear, nontechnical language that relates the topic to their listeners’ knowledge and interests. knowledge about the topic. If not, you will usually do better to aim for the low end of the knowledge spectrum. Some experts recommend preparing a speech as if the audience had never heard of the subject. That may be a bit extreme, but it is one way to make sure you define every special term, clarify every idea, illustrate every concept, and support every conclusion. You cannot go wrong by following the news reporters’ code: “Never overestimate the information of your audience; never underestimate the intelligence of your audience.” Relate the Subject Directly to the Audience The British dramatist Oscar Wilde arrived at his club after the disastrous openingnight performance of his new play. “Oscar, how did your play go?” asked a friend. “Oh,” Wilde quipped, “the play was a great success, but the audience was a failure.” Speakers have been known to give much the same answer in saving face after a dismal informative speech. “Oh,” they say, “the speech was fine, but the audience just wasn’t interested.” And they are at least partly right—the audience wasn’t interested. Then was the speech fine? Not by any objective standard. A speech is measured by its impact on a particular audience. There is no such thing as a fine speech that puts people to sleep. It is the speaker’s job to get listeners interested—and to keep them interested. Informative speakers have one big hurdle to overcome. They must recognize that what is fascinating to them may not be fascinating to everybody. A mathematician, for example, might be truly enthralled by a perfect equation, but most people wouldn’t want to hear about it. Once you have chosen a topic that could possibly be interesting to your listeners, you should Class Activity Once students have settled on topics for their informative speeches, lead a class discussion in which students share their topics with their classmates. Ask the class how much they know about each topic. In most cases, the class will know considerably less than the speaker assumes. Lead a brainstorming session on how the speakers can relate their topics to the audience. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 386 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: 386 CHAPTER 14 Speaking to Inform take special steps to relate it to them. You should tie it in with their interests and concerns. Start in the introduction. Instead of saying, I want to talk with you about chili peppers, you could say: Imagine your mouth burning like wildfire, your eyes squirting out uncontrollable tears, and your face red and sweating profusely. Are you sick? No. You just took a bite of a screaming hot chili pepper. Congratulations. You’re partaking in a worldwide tradition that has been spicing up lives and diets for thousands of years. Get your audience involved right at the beginning. Notice how one student did this in her informative speech about depression. The speaker’s classmates all knew something about depression as a medical condition, but the speaker wanted to relate the subject to them on a more personal basis. She began by saying: CD 1:VIDEO 14.2 View these excerpts from “The Hidden World of Chili Peppers” and “Depression: More Than a Blue Mood.” Cross-Reference See Chapter 5 for a full discussion of audience analysis and adaptation. You feel exhausted, yet you can’t sleep. You have no energy, no hope, and you get no pleasure from your usual activities. You’re angry and irritable, and you find that lately you’re spending more and more time alone. You feel like you’re caught in a trap, and you see no way out. Have you or someone close to you suffered from these scary feelings? I’d be surprised if you answered no. These are symptoms of depression, and according to the National Institute of Mental Health, about 19 percent of adults, or almost 10 million people, become depressed each year. What’s more, symptoms usually begin between ages 15 and 30, making depression a serious concern for college students. Don’t stop with the introduction. Whenever you can, put your listeners into the body of the speech. After all, nothing interests people more than themselves. Don’t just rattle off statistics and concepts as if you were reciting a shopping list. Find ways to talk about your topic in terms of your listeners. Bring your material home to them. Get it as close to them as possible. Here’s an example. Let’s say you are explaining how people can discover whether they are “secret southpaws”—that is, people who are naturally lefthanded but who have grown up preferring the right hand because they were taught to use it as a child. You have plenty of facts and could recite them like this: According to Science magazine, half of all people who are naturally left-handed assume they are right-handed because that is the hand they use to eat, to write, and to play sports. But how can it be determined whether one is a natural southpaw? According to Abram Blau, author of The Master Hand, there are a number of simple tests. For one thing, most natural left-handers can write spontaneously backward or upside down with the left hand. For another, when left-handers clasp their hands in front of themselves, they usually place the left thumb on top. In contrast, when left-handers grab a broom, they normally place their left hand below the right. Finally, when using Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 387 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: Guidelines for Informative Speaking 387 the right hand, natural left-handers will draw a circle clockwise, while natural righthanders will draw it counterclockwise. People who give a left-handed response on three or more of these tests may well be secret southpaws. This is fascinating information, but it is not made fascinating to the audience. Let’s try again: Just because you use your right hand to eat, to write, and to play sports, you may assume that you’re naturally right-handed. But, says Science magazine, half of all people who are naturally left-handed grow up using their right hands. How can you tell if you’re a natural lefty? Dr. Abram Blau, author of The Master Hand, gives some tests you can try. First, on a sheet of paper see if you can write backward or upside down with your left hand. If you are left-handed, you can probably do this spontaneously, without practice or training. Second, clasp your hands together in front of you. Whichever thumb you place on top is usually your dominant hand. Third, grab hold of a broomstick. Odds are you’ll place your dominant hand on the bottom. Finally, draw a circle on a piece of paper with your right hand. If you draw it counterclockwise, you’re probably a natural right-hander. But if you draw it clockwise, you’re probably a natural lefty. If you test left-handed on three of these tests, there is a good chance you are a secret southpaw. CD 1:VIDEO 14.3 View these excerpts from “Secret Southpaws.” Look at the frequent use of “you” and “your.” The facts are the same, but now they are pointed directly at the audience. This is the kind of thing that gets listeners to sit up and pay attention. In addition, research shows that using personal terms such as “you” and “your” in an informative speech significantly increases audience understanding of the speaker’s ideas.2 Don’t Be Too Technical What does it mean to say that an informative speech is too technical? It may mean the subject matter is too specialized for the audience. Any subject can be popularized—but only up to a point. The important thing for a speaker to know is what can be explained to an ordinary audience and what cannot. Say your subject is electronic amplifiers. It’s no trick to demonstrate how to operate an amplifier (how to turn it on and off, adjust the volume, set the tone and balance controls). It’s also relatively easy to explain what an amplifier does (it boosts the sound received from a radio, CD player, or live performance). But to give a full scientific account of how an amplifier works—that is another matter. It cannot be done in any reasonable time unless the audience knows the principles of audio technology. You would be better off not even trying. The material is just too technical to be understood by a general audience. Even when the subject matter is not technical, the language used to explain it may be. Every activity has its jargon. This is true of golf (bogey, wedge, match play); of chemistry (colloid, glycogen, heavy water); of Overhead Transparency For ease of classroom discussion, the guidelines for informative speaking discussed on pp. 383–391 are included in the binder of full-color overhead transparencies that accompanies The Art of Public Speaking. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 388 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: 388 CHAPTER 14 Speaking to Inform jargon The specialized or technical language of a trade, profession, or similar group. financial analysis (covered call, reverse bid, toehold acquisition); of ballet (arabesque, jeté, pas de deux). If you are talking to a group of specialists, you can use technical words and be understood. But you must do all you can to avoid technical words when informing a general audience such as your speech class. You may find this hard to do at first. Many people are so addicted to the lingo of their subject that they have trouble escaping it. As you give more speeches, though, you will become increasingly adept at expressing your ideas in everyday, nontechnical language. Here, for instance, are two statements explaining the process of cryonics, which involves freezing people after death in the hope that medical science will be able to restore them to life in the future. The first is heavily laden with specialized language that would have little impact on ordinary listeners: Options for cryonic suspension include freezing the subject’s head or complete body. In either case, the process entails complex scientific procedures that, for maximum functionality, must be implemented immediately upon the cessation of biological functioning. Measures must be taken to minimize tissue decomposition so as to ensure that the subject can be successfully resuscitated at some undetermined future period. The second statement is perfectly understandable. It is from a student speech and shows how technical information can be made clear to the average person: CD 1:VIDEO 14.4 View this excerpt from “Cryonics.” Currently, when a person who has signed up to be cryonically suspended dies, a specific procedure, which was outlined in the book Cryonics: Reaching for Tomorrow, must be carried out. First, before death, an individual must decide whether to have his or her entire body frozen or just the head. If the whole body is to be frozen, it must be preserved upon death. Immediately after death—ideally within a matter of minutes—the patient is connected to a heart-lung machine and chemicals such as glucose and heparin are circulated with the oxygenated blood to help minimize the freezing damage. At the same time, the patient’s internal temperature is reduced as quickly as possible using cold packs. If only the head will be frozen, a slightly different procedure must be carried out. The head must be surgically detached from the rest of the body and preserved in a separate container. You may be wondering, “Why would I preserve only my head?” The answer is, with some diseases the body is in a very poor condition. If this is the case and you choose to preserve your head only, you do so with the belief that medical science will be able to create a healthy new body for you in the future. Much clearer, isn’t it? The only specialized words in the whole passage are “glucose,” “heparin,” and “oxygenated blood,” and they do not get in the way. The rest of the language is straightforward, the ideas easy to grasp. This is what you should strive for in your informative speeches. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 389 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: Guidelines for Informative Speaking 389 Avoid Abstractions “My task,” said the novelist Joseph Conrad, “is, before all, to make you see.” And make the reader see is just what Conrad did. Witness this passage, in which Conrad describes the aftermath of an explosion aboard a ship: The first person I saw was Mahon, with eyes like saucers, his mouth open, and the long white hair standing straight on end round his head like a silver halo. He was just about to go down when the sight of the main deck stirring, heaving up, and changing into splinters before his eyes, petrified him on the top step. I stared at him in unbelief, and he stared at me with a queer kind of shocked curiosity. I did not know that I had no hair, no eyebrows, no eyelashes, that my young mustache was burnt off, that my face was black, one cheek laid open, my nose cut, and my chin bleeding.3 A speech is not a novel. Still, too many abstractions are tedious— whether in a novel or in a speech. Many informative speeches would be vastly improved by the novelist’s bent for color, specificity, and detail. One way to avoid abstractions is through description. When we think of description, we usually think of external events such as the explosion described by Conrad. But description is also used to communicate internal feelings. Here is how one student tried to convey to his audience the sensations he experienced when he first began sky diving: description A statement that depicts a person, event, idea, or the like with clarity and vividness. As we wait for the plane to climb to the jump altitude of 12,000 feet, my mind races with a frenzied jumble of thoughts: “Okay, this is the moment you’ve been waiting for. It’s going to be great. Am I really going to jump out of an airplane from 12,000 feet? What if something goes wrong? Can I still back out? Come on now, don’t worry. It’ll be fine.” Even if we have not been sky diving, we have all had the same kinds of emotions on similar occasions. So what happened next? Now it is time to jump. My palms are sweating and my heart is pounding so hard I think it may burst. “Get ready,” yells the instructor. As I jump into the blue, I wonder, “What am I doing here?” Yes—and then what? The blast of air resistance blows me backward like a leaf at the mercy of an autumn wind. In about 10 seconds my body levels out and accelerates to a speed of 120 miles an hour. The air supports my body like an invisible flying carpet. There is no sound except for the wind rushing around my face. The earth appears soft and green, rivers look like strips of silver, and in every direction the scenery forms a panoramic landscape. Any fears or doubts I had are gone in the exhilaration of free flight. Every nerve in my body is alive with sensation; yet I am overcome by a peaceful feeling and the sense that I am at one with the sky. As we listen to the speaker, we are almost up there with him, sharing his thoughts, feeling his heart pound, joining his exhilaration as he floats effortlessly through the sky. The vivid description lends reality to the speech and draws us further in. Speech Assignment If you are teaching during an election year—local, state, or national—assign a speech in which students inform their classmates about the issues and/or candidates. For one approach to such an assignment, see Lori A. WaltersKramer, “Preparing for November,” in Selections from the Communication Teacher, 2002–2005, pp. 52–53, which accompanies The Art of Public Speaking. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 390 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: 390 CHAPTER 14 Speaking to Inform Regardless of the situation, informative speakers need to work on relating the topic directly to their audience, on avoiding overly technical language, and on personalizing their ideas. comparison A statement of the similarities among two or more people, events, ideas, etc. Another way to escape abstractions is with comparisons that put your subject in concrete, familiar terms. Do you want to convey what would happen if a comet or large asteroid struck the earth? You could say this: If a comet or large asteroid struck the earth, the impact would be devastating. True, but “the impact would be devastating” is vague and abstract. It does not communicate your meaning clearly and concretely. Now suppose you add this: To give you an idea how devastating the impact would be, it would be like all the nuclear bombs in the world going off at one spot. contrast A statement of the differences among two or more people, events, ideas, etc. Now you have made the abstract specific and given us a sharp new slant on things. Like comparison, contrast can put an idea into concrete terms. Suppose you want to make the point that a person’s chances of winning a state lottery are extremely low. You could say, “The odds, for example, of winning a state lottery are an astronomical 7 million to 1.” The word “astronomical” suggests that you consider 7 million to 1 long odds, but long in comparison to what? One speaker offered this contrast: The odds of picking the correct six-digit sequence in a typical state lottery are more than 7 million to 1. In contrast, the odds of getting hit by lightning are only 2 million to 1. The chances of being dealt a royal flush in a poker game are 650,000 to 1. The odds of dying in an automobile accident are about 6,000 to 1. In other words, the odds are much stronger that you will get hit by lightning or be killed in a car crash than that you will win the jackpot in a state lottery. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 391 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: Guidelines for Informative Speaking 391 Now an abstract fact has been put into meaningful perspective. See if you can do something similar in your informative speech. Personalize Your Ideas Listeners want to be entertained as they are being enlightened.4 Nothing takes the edge off an informative speech more than an unbroken string of facts and figures. And nothing enlivens a speech more than personal illustrations. Remember, people are interested in people. They react to stories, not statistics. Whenever possible, you should try to personalize your ideas and dramatize them in human terms. Let’s say you are talking about autism, the developmental disability marked by impaired communication and interaction skills. You would surely note that the condition affects 1 in every 500 children, occurs four times more frequently in males than in females, and is most prevalent among Caucasian males. You would also note that the symptoms of autism include abnormal introversion, severely limited use of language, repetitive behaviors, avoidance of eye contact, loss of emotional control, and passive responses to affection. But these are dry facts and figures. If you really want to get your audience involved, you will weave in some examples of children who suffer from autism. One speaker began by telling about Sam, her autistic nephew: My nephew Sam was the delight of our family when he was born, the first grandchild of my parents. He cooed and babbled, smiled at his mom and dad, grasped for the playthings around his crib. At family dinners on Sunday, we took turns holding him in our arms, feeding him, and singing him to sleep. He seemed like any normal infant in a secure and loving home. Then shortly before his second birthday we began to notice unusual behaviors. Sam avoided looking us in the eye, did not seem interested in learning words, played endlessly with the same toy, rocked back and forth in his chair for hours at a time, and was easily frustrated. My sister took him to a specialist, who gave the dreaded diagnosis: Sam was autistic. personalize To present one’s ideas in human terms that relate in some fashion to the experience of the audience. Class Activity Popular nonfiction writing often provides helpful models of informative discourse on technical topics. Have each student select an article of interest from the medicine, science, or business section of Time or Newsweek— ideally on the subject of the student’s upcoming speech. The student should prepare a brief report (written and/or oral) on the article, explaining how the writer uses the techniques discussed in this chapter to make the subject clear and understandable to ordinary readers. During the body of the speech, the speaker mentioned Sam twice more to illustrate different aspects of autism. Then, at the end of the speech, she brought Sam’s story to a hopeful conclusion: We have seen that autism is a very serious disorder whose causes are not well understood and whose effects on families and the lives of the children themselves can be devastating. But we have also seen that early diagnosis and early intervention can help to modify and even turn around the symptoms of autism. I am happy to say that Sam has benefited from such intervention. From the time he was two, he has been taught “normal” behavior patterns through aggressive therapy. Now he is able to participate in his class at the local school. He is also more responsive and affectionate at home. Sam continues to be our delight. It was a powerful ending. By putting a human face on a familiar topic, the speaker took autism out of the realm of statistics and medical jargon and brought it home in personal terms. As one listener said afterward, “Because of your speech, I will never see autism in the same way again.” CD 1:VIDEO 14.5 View these excerpts from “Autism: Heartbreak and Hope.” Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 392 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: 392 CHAPTER 14 Speaking to Inform Sample Speech with Commentary CD 2: FULL SPEECH View “Acupuncture: New Uses for an Ancient Remedy.” The following classroom speech provides an excellent example of how to apply the guidelines for informative speaking discussed in this chapter. As you study the speech, notice how the speaker takes what could be a dry, technical topic and makes it interesting. Pay special attention to how crisply the speech is organized, to how the speaker uses well-chosen supporting materials to develop her ideas, and to how she clarifies her ideas with concrete language and personal examples. Acupuncture: New Uses for an Ancient Remedy Commentary Speech The speaker starts with an extended example that captures attention and interest. In this case, the example works particularly well because it is personally related to the speaker and is richly detailed and vividly drawn. Six months ago, my 78-year-old grandmother was quickly losing her independence. Severe arthritis in both knees hampered her ability to take care of herself. Shopping, getting around the neighborhood, even walking down her front steps was becoming almost impossible. Pain medications helped somewhat, but the side effects created their own problems. As the speaker continues her opening example, she introduces the subject of her speech by talking about her grandmother’s positive experience with acupuncture. Then her doctor suggested acupuncture. My grandmother was skeptical at first, but she was willing to try just about anything. She did, and the results were miraculous. After six weeks, her pain and stiffness were significantly reduced, she was able to take care of her apartment again, she could get out on her own to go shopping, to visit friends and family, and to do the other things her arthritis had prevented in the past. Acupuncture restored her quality of life and her independence. Mentioning her own experience with acupuncture helps establish the speaker’s credibility. Here the speaker reinforces her credibility and previews the main points to be discussed in the body of the speech. An explicit preview statement at the end of the introduction is especially important when speaking to inform. My grandmother’s story is not unique. Performed for well over 2,000 years in China and other parts of Asia, acupuncture is becoming more and more popular in the U.S. and other Western countries for one simple reason—it works. Impressed by my grandmother’s experience, I began acupuncture treatments for my migraine headaches, and now my headaches are completely gone. Not surprisingly, I wanted to learn more about this treatment that produced such miraculous results for both my grandmother and myself. Today I will share part of what I have learned by explaining what happens when you receive an acupuncture treatment, how acupuncture works, the kinds of medical conditions that can be treated by acupuncture, and the growing use of acupuncture in combination with Western medical techniques. Let’s start by looking at a typical acupuncture treatment. Luc3564x_ch14_370-397 09:23:2005 17:57 Page 393 pinnacle wg2:Desktop Folder:NAYAN 23.09.05: Sample Speech with Commentary 393 Now the speaker moves into her first main point. The information in this and the following paragraph answers the audience’s questions about what happens during an acupuncture treatment. Acupuncture is the insertion of needles into the skin to achieve a balanced flow of energy, which in turn restores and preserves health. To prevent any chance of contamination from one person to another, acupuncturists in the U.S. use sterilized needles that are individually packaged and are disposed of after a single use. Knowing that many people are squeamish about being poked with needles, the speaker makes sure to explain that the needles used in acupuncture are small and essentially painless. Notice that the speaker did not pass the needles around during her speech. As mentioned in Chapter 13, putting visual aids in the hands of the audience during a speech is an almost certain recipe for disaster because listeners will end up paying more attention to the visual aids than to the speaker’s words. I realize that the notion of having needles stuck into you may seem frightening, but the needles are so thin that t