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rubs hands togetherBecause, in short, they hadn’t invented accountants yet.This, while it might seem unlikely, is a very good question. The obvious answer, which the other three answers have given more pithily than I can ever hope to be capable of doing, is that there is no evidence of those records. Our earliest examples of writing come from the Sumerians in Mesopotamia in roughly 3500 BC, as covered here.An early cuneiform tablet, from somewhere around 3000 BC.Before that, there’s no evidence of written language. Cuneiform, the Mesopotamian writing system, is the first script we can point to and say, “Yes, that’s definitely a written language.” There are a few potential (though extremely, absolutely, very not at all likely) contenders, e.g. the Vinča symbols, but, even if they did represent a language, those only date to maybe a couple millennia earlier. Again, there’s no records on the scale presented here.But there’s another question, a fun question, below that. Sure, it’s unlikely that there ever were lost written languages - but is it impossible that there were? Could - not was, but could - there have been a written language, invented 100 000 years ago, that was lost to time?It’s not immediately unthinkable. Some writing systems, like Brahmi in India and Phoenician in, well, Phoenicia were originally written on bark or leaves or papyrus, which decay quickly, so we have few records of early Brahmi or Phoenician writing. Maybe our hypothetical lost writing system was written on bark or leaves or animal hide or some other quickly-compostable material, hence why we’ve got no records of it. Come to think of it, the idea of a lost, ancient, etc. writing system isImpossible. I’ll stop the suspense there. It’s not possible. There could not have been a writing system from before 4000-5000 BC at most, and most likely none before Mesopotamian cuneiform in 3500 BC. Why this is the case is an excellent question; to answer it, I’m going to talk about wheels.The wheel is the archetypal simple invention. It’s a ubiquitous round thing that moves stuff: how hard could it be to come up with it? Any group of people who hasn’t come up with it must be stupid or backwards or uncivilized or some variant thereof, right? Except it’s a harder than that. There’s more to inventing the wheel than inventing, um, the wheel.Invent the wheel. Great. In fact, invent three more.Now what? You’ve got four wheels, sure - what are you going to do with them? A modern person would say transportation, but that isn’t obvious. Most early wheels were instead used for pottery, as pottery wheels.Stumble upon the idea of using them for transportation.Alright, sure. How do you plan to go about doing this? In order to invent the cart, you first have to have invented the box, and, again, that isn’t an obvious invention.Invent the box. You’ve got your cart now!Nail the wheels to the side of the cart and you’re - oh, hey, uh…It turns out that if you nail a wheel to the side of a cart, all the cart has now is a circular piece of wood with a hole in the middle nailed to it. In order for the wheels to turn, you have to connect them.Invent the axle. Invent another one, if you’d like.Connect the wheels to the axles.Nail them to the bottom of the cart and you - no, not again…It turns out that if you have stationary wheels, you can move your cart in exactly one direction, excepting some pushing and pulling. It’s finicky. You can either limit your cart to two wheels or else you have to come up with a way to make the front wheels turn.Either limit your cart to two wheels or come up with a way to make the front wheels turn.Congratulations! You’ve got a functioning cart! It’s complete with box, wheels, axle(s), and optional wheel-turny-bit! Now all you’ve got to do is…oh, well, now, um, you see…You’ve got to make the cart move. Without a way to make the cart move, it’s useless. You could pull it yourself (time-consuming and tiring), or buy a slave (expensive, and also time-consuming and tiring for the slave). Or you could get an animal to pull it. That sounds like a great idea: get a horse or ox, then…uh…about that horse…You need to have domesticated animals. If you’re in a civilization that happens to have animals that are a.) domesticated, b.) large, c.) willing to pull things, and d.) of a body structure that can support pulling heavy things over long distances, great! If your animal is missing any of those elements, though, you’re not going to be using your wheeled cart much. But let’s say you do have that horse.Just strap the horse to the cart andYou have to invent a way of attaching the horse to the cart. This, like everything else so far, is harder than it sounds. A bad harness can come undone or break, be horribly inefficient, and/or harm the animal it’s attached to.Invent a good harness.And with that, you dedicated wheel-inventor, you have a box on wheels that can turn which is itself full of stuff and also attached well to your pack animal of choice. Your cart is ready. There are no more problems with your cart.Set off on your journey and…well, this might be the biggest problem of them all.You need a flat, cleared surface. Your cart can’t go through the bush or the rain forest. Basically, if you’re not on a perfectly flat, clear plain, you need roads. If you haven’t got roads, you can’t drive your cart very far.Invent roads.There you are. Finally. The wheel will be improved from then on, with things like spokes and rubber and motors, but that’s all you need for a primitive wagon sort of vehicle. (Edit: This is not entirely true; see Alan Dillman’s comment here.)If you’re an observant person, you may have noticed that there are an awful lot of steps to inventing a proper wheeled vehicle. To us, we with the wheels, the wheel appears obvious. But it’s only obvious because we’ve had it for so long. Without box, axle, pack animal, or roads, the wheel has no purpose, no necessity to produce it, and thus no invention, or at least no large-scale implementation.Wheel usage, then, is independent of technological advancement. The Mayans, Aztecs, and Incas, who were advanced and civilized by any standard, never made much use of the wheel: their terrain was often mountainous, and their pack animal, the llama, of the wrong build for cart-pulling. The only place wheels were ever used was in children’s toys.There are a lot of steps, conditions, and so on needed to make the wheel useful. Without these conditions, you don’t get wheels.To take it back on topic: it’s a similar case with writing systems.Writing is, like the wheel, ubiquitous. It’s easier for your average literate urban person to imagine a world without farming than one without writing. You write symbols for the sounds you say: how hard could it be to come up with that? Any group of people who hasn’t come up with it must be stupid or backwards or uncivilized or some variant thereof, right?Except, once again, it’s harder than that. Writing has been invented four times: in Mesopotamia; in Egypt; in China; and in Mesoamerica. Every other writing system comes from one of those four. (Our own alphabet is from Egyptian, as covered here.) Each of those four times, writing has developed in the same way, which is as follows:In the beginning, civilization is created. (ahem: This has made a lot of people very angry and been widely regarded as a bad move.)Now you have cities, and people in the cities, and people making and buying and selling food and livestock and slaves and things, and governments taxing people, and a great big stew of transactions that need to be taken care of. There’s a need for administration, for keeping track of records.So, people - and this is the great unsung invention of humanity, ultimately responsible for all of history, art, culture, literature, mathematics, and tradition in the civilized world from five thousand years ago through to today - invent accountants.Then they invent bureaucrats. Administrators. Record-keepers. The people who sit at desks and write things down.And it’s that “write things down” bit that revolutionizes the world. In order to keep track of purchases, taxes, trades, who sold cows to who in exchange for what amount of barley, things that no human can hold in their mind, they come up with a system: draw pictures to represent different things. Write, say, “[BOB][2][COW][to][JAMES][for][300][unit][BARLEY]”, using pictures for “cow” and “barley” and dots and lines for “2” and “300”.But how do you write “Bob” or “James” or “to” or “for”? You can’t draw a picture of a preposition! What you can do, however, is draw a picture of a thing that sounds like “to” or “for”. We still do a version of this: “2” sounds like “to”, so you can write “Bob sold 2 cows 2 James 4 300 units of barley”. Substitute the rest of the words for pictures, numbers, or pictures that sound like another word for the thing they represent, and you have a way to keep track of anything.As the civilization would eventually realize, you can do more than accounting with this system. Add some more pictures for the rest of written language and you can write anything you’d like. You can write letters. You can write stories. You can write down the poems that have been floating around orally for centuries. The pictures steadily become more stylized until they no longer look like pictures but rather like abstract symbols.Writing has been invented. By accountants. (In fact, the first name we have record of isn’t the name of a king, or of a legendary hero, or of a poet: it’s of an accountant named Kushim, signing his name on a receipt to file away.)The so-called Kushim tablet, dating to the 3400s BC. It reads: “29 086 units of barley were received over the course of 37 months. Signed, Kushim.”Writing is only practical in a situation where a large amount of information, too large for any one person or even group of people to remember and too boring and specific for any of them to need or want to, has to be recorded for a long period of time. In a tribal hunter-gatherer society, you really only need to remember:edible and poisonous plants and animals: This is something you need to remember, so it’s a.) unlikely anyone would forget it, b.) something practical that needs to be immediately retrieved, and c.) visual in any case. It doesn’t benefit from writing, so writing does not need to be invented to keep track of what you can or can’t eat.histories/stories/traditions: These could benefit from being written down, which is why, when writing was invented, they were some of the earliest things to be written down. In a tribal society, they were passed down orally instead. This didn’t require a superhuman memory, and so worked well enough that writing wasn’t necessary.In an early agricultural societies, writing wasn’t needed, either, for much the same reason; nor in proper towns, because trade was not yet so complicated that it required accountants. It’s like the wheel: it’s useless if you’re missing any of the right parts, the right context, the right environment. Necessity is the mother of invention; inversely, lack of necessity is the, er, contraceptive of invention.The earliest that writing could have arisen is the earliest that complex cities with administration existed, with the oldest surviving records dating from a few centuries later, with the older ones having been lost or destroyed.When is that? It’s about 4000–5000 BC, if you’re stretching the estimate, in Mesopotamia and Egypt, whose governments evolved roughly parallel. From there, they developed accountants, then writing. And when are the earliest records of writing? From just a little after that period. Writing would have been invented in 4000–5000 BC, which is the earliest it could have been invented.The only way writing could have been invented in 100 000–25 000 BC is if there were complex cities with administration back then. It’s easy for writing materials to decay; it’s a lot harder for an entire civilization (and, necessarily, agriculture itself, which is only thought to have been invented 10 000 years ago) to go unnoticed.To answer your question, it isn’t possible that any writing systems existed before 4000-5000 BC at the earliest, because writing (and thus the entirety of literature, and so forth) was invented by accountants. In order to have writing, you need accountants; to have accountants, you need cities; to have cities, you need civilization; to have civilization, you need agriculture.Thanks for asking!

I’m not sure what “Hyung” means and how it works in terms of showing respect/endearment to another Korean, actually, so it doesn’t help me. However, just because I don’t understand one small part of your detail doesn’t mean I’m unable to answer this question.  :-)So. Like Don Grushkin said, we don’t typically use Mr., Mrs., Dr., Miss in ASL. It’s not that we are intentionally being “rude”…it’s actually cumbersome to say “Ms. Smith” in ASL. We typically give Ms. Smith a name sign, and we use that name sign to refer to her in conversations. This assumes that Ms. Smith is part of the Deaf community in some way…i.e., administrator, teacher, interpreter or whatever. If Ms. Smith isn’t part of the Deaf community, we would simply spell her name (as in, Jane Smith) to acknowledge her existence and then talk about the reason her name is being brought into the conversation. That’s our minimum/basic level of respect, which we extend to the general society at large. As Don Grushkin says, we do use “Dr. Smith” in certain contexts and/or settings…usually it’s done during meetings or conferences where we’re about to introduce Dr. Smith as a speaker or bringing her in an environment where people need to know that Dr. Smith has a Ph.D. degree. This is typically an one-time deal: we don’t persist in saying “Dr.” for the rest of the meeting, because we expect people to remember this information. Remember, even saying “Dr.” is cumbersome, and we do it only when absolutely necessary.We have other ways of showing people within our community endearments and respect, and they’re not compiled into one simple, easy sign. I wonder if you’re thinking that the one-handed “I Love You” sign meets this criteria. (Just so you know, the ILY sign isn’t typically used as a sign of respect. Some people think it’s supposed to be used as an endearment…but to be honest, the overuse of our ILY sign by the hearing society has had the effect of turning our ILY sign into an equivalent of a yellow Smiley Face. In most cases, if you flash the ILY sign to a Deaf person, you’ll get a pained/fake smile of acknowledgement. I personally would like to see a lot less use of the ILY sign.)Within our community, we show respect by:within conversational content (no slang or dirty words, for example)how we use our facial expressions (this provides tone)adjusting the position of our bodies to include her/him in the groupacknowledging her/him with eye contactselection of topics discussed (i.e., we wouldn’t choose inflammatory topics)listening to whatever the person is saying and taking her/him seriouslyWithin our community, we show endearment by:gently laying a hand on her/his shoulder (it’s also sometimes a way to show support)hugsfriendly banter/jokingwarmer tone in our facial expressionsconversational details that show knowledge of the other person’s preferences, quirks, and so forthWe’re not impolite or rude people. Our cultural conventions are just different from that of the hearing society’s, and it’s important to remember this. Don’t compare cultures against each other and judging them accordingly.

**My response is to the original question: What are some of the hardest things in life you have encountered?. It is off the top of my mind and not in chronological order. It is not the story of my life, just stuff that I found exceedingly difficult to get through, overly trying, and sometimes even life threatening. **I've been raped, beaten up by 2 different men I was in love with,stalked….all by completely different individuals and at different times of my life,betrayed by close members of family,the sudden death of my mother, the realization that she had become an alcoholic, more than hard….saying good-bye in Africa to the love of my life forever,care taking the last two years of my best cat friend's life and waiting and watching her die from a terminal disease,standing up in front of my 8th grade class citing the Declaration of Independence,given some acid or LSD that pushed me over the edge into a really frightening hallucinating bad trip,being told by doctors that I had to give up my lifelong career otherwise I would go deaf,giving up my only passion in life: teaching dance,living in silence for 25+ years to protect the hearing I had left, more than difficult to do as a music lovertaking a powerful Swiss insurance company to court three times in order to get what they legally and rightfully owed me,sixteen years of waiting for my lawyers answers and being careful every minute not to be over emotional (very difficult for me to do),the unexplainable sensations of gaining weight on a dancer-fit body while MDD (Major Depressive Disorder) took over my will and spirit,Peri-MENOPAUSE, MENOPAUSE, Post Menopause, oh those hormonal and neurotransmitter changes…brutal,Each experience of the devastating loss/deaths of all principle people in my life within a ten year span,the approximately 35 year estrangement of my brother,Relocating to two different European countries within five years and leaving everything and everyone I loved behind for the advancement of my career, (Californian here)going to prison in Munich, Germany for over staying my visa to report illegal doings by my Bavarian employer,Being kicked out of my deceased mother's home by my step father's first family without knowing my side of things,Loving a man so deeply that saying no to marriage because of his alcoholism killed me,Having to give a strange man a hand job for giving me a ride to work otherwise violent outcome,studying algebra for 3 years in high school and finally passing with a D grade,Staying home at 16 when my gut was telling me to get out,Leaving home at 17/18 with only $20 that Mom had given to me for my Slectric typewriter, was my graduation present that she liked better than me….My best ever closest friend stroking out and barely surviving for two years in a hospital bed on life support while I was living in a Podunk trashy situation in the armpit of America and succumbed to a serious emotional breakdown,my 14th birthday no one came to my party so I ate the whole cake (rare recipe) in 1962….the real red velvet cake and icing, this wasn't so hard thoughBeing laughed at and pointed at while trying to walk up a sand dune where my butt was exaggerated so much that someone yelled, have you ever seen such a big butt? Oh yeah, that hurt so much and I was only 13 I still can feel the sting of being made fun of……Having to pretend to be happy when miserably despondent inside wanting to kill myself whenever I was around people, depression is misunderstood and chaotically difficult,Letting someone else clean my home because I'm in too much arthritis pain to stand up longer than five minutes,reinventing myself, my identity, my values, my passions, my dreams after overwhelming loss and deciding to stay alive instead of dying.Maybe I should stop here….too many difficult things I've been through to list I guess and probably haven't even touched the more life changing ones on this list yet, but that's enough for now I think. I have just as many wonderful memories too and those keep me going.06/21/2018edit note: After writing this answer, nothing above seems as hard or difficult to me any more as what has happened to me since.I can't see ( blind) in my right eye now which could simply be a cataract…I'm hopingAll of my teeth are falling out or decaying, and the bridges put in 40 years ago are broken, chipped or goneI'm not able to get my knee replacement surgery for reasons listed belowI have a huge fatty tumor in between my shoulders on my backA red flat patch next to it that bleeds occasionally all on its ownoh yeah, and I've been diagnosed with Stage 4 melanoma and bone cancer, metastaticso what's difficult?Making the right decision for me of whether to do chemo or let the cancer take me naturally.I'm rather numb right now…

Most among us are frustrated because the IITM disappoints us in every possible way. Below list of comments give a better idea of what the  "Why are secretaries are like this, Why do the never work for the betterment of Institute?""Why the heck should I pay 88Rs. for this bull shit""Those who take up Secretary position do it only for the certificates which help in Placements. Show me one guy in the institute who would continue in their PoR if they know that they are not going to get certificates.""CCW is more corrupt than UPA sarkar. And the secretaries are like corrupt IAS officers taking their share every time possible. Otherwise why would it so tough for them to provide ache khana. And adding to this they never publish their records.""Mandatory attendance serious bullshit.""It's really immature to for leading institutes like IIT's to take a back step in cross gender communication""In IITM nothing happens through secretaries. Protests are the only way to make changes.""My hostel council is fit for nothing. They pass budgets but never make any improvements in the Hostel."Very recently I happened to have a brief chat with s0me of our Professors and what I found out was really astounding . Given below are some of the concerns they haveCross-Gender Communication-One professor said "I had a cousin, it was during 70'sDuring her college days she was into drugs unfortunately the college administration found out about this and reported the very same to  his father. His father replied saying that his daughter is mature enough to take care of herself. But how many of your batch mates parents would do the same?? Do you know that there has been an incident of abortion in one your B.Tech batch mates. And the parent is frustrated with the Dean and the Warden. Could they have said the that she is major and she should look after herself ? Is the society ready for such a reply? I don't think so. Imagine a situation wherein he said the your girl the word spread out. How may of your friends wouldn't call her a names??These kind of incidents are going to make a serious impact on female residential educaiton. After all education is the prime responsibility here. We are only trying to prevent Females from entering the Mens Hostel but we are never against their communication. Please don't think this as one of many moves that we are making to shut off cross gender communication.  "Even 1000 similar explanations should  can't be a reason to shut off the cross gender communication. But who should make the first move in promoting the cross gender communication in India. If the Education Institutes make the first move then it may cause serious damage to the institute especially with bullshit media which want to sensationalise everything.Messing: Only the CCW, Dost and Chariman(MMCC) are the ones working for their betterment. No other professor are able to find time. to offer help in this regard.Plagiarism in assignments and Examinations              Professors :"None of the Students are ready to reveal the names of the culprits in anonymity. How can you expect us take an action. We have made sure that there  enough invigilators during the exams. Most departments give seatings in alternate benches. I think this the maximum we can do.If you ask me about the assignments most Universities have culture on non plagiarism. We should make our student also develop the same habit."Attendance:"Almost 60% of my colleagues are against the idea of compulsory attendance. As we all are well know very well, most of these professors don't take attendance in classes. But what's unfortunate is to see that these classes usually have turnout of 20-30%. Of course there are some exceptions. How should one tackle this? Incase we conduct class tests or assignment sessions students are ready to copy."Interest in Engineering-Professors:"Most Students say that they are not interested in Engineering and JEE has seriously flailed in doing the job. All the old 5 IIT's have decided to not allot any branch before the end of first yearStudent:"Why didn't it happen?"Professor:"As expected the new IIT's are not ready for such a thing since in those other IIT's Computer Science is the only branch that's able to attract top rankers of JEE."Course Work-Professor:"We are not very far away from losing our tie-up's with many Universities worldwide with regard to Campus Exchange programmes. They are already reporting that the courses here not that intensive and therefore they can't have a credit transfer for courses thought here. As many of us know, it's very much impossible for a student from Stanford to pass in all the courses even if one course is taken over and above the prescribed curriculum because he has no time. This should explain the dilution of the courses that we have here " are making to shut off cross gender communication.  Student: "Why don't we have similar curriculum here?"Professor:"It's plainly due to professors politics. We should some mandatory course and every course and every Professor will say that his course is vital and it  should be mandatory. Some specialisations are falling to admit students since they are introduced for satisfying some professors."My Opinion about Professors:"As matter of fact a most Deans work for an average of 8 hours only in their Dean's Office. In addition to that they have classes, pressure and family. Most people don't take up a position like Dean(or)Director at the age of 50 to go ahead in life but they want to do something for the institute and they do as much as they can. But the changes are gradual and not every attempt would succeed but they are happening. And there are very few other Professors apart from Director and the Deans. They are short of hands. "My opinion about most of the answers for this Question:What amazes me the most is the my institute students pathetic  comments are since most of you expressed your grievances without any understanding of Legislative System. They look vey lame and very similar to child asking his father for helicopter as his birthday gift. I wished that my institute students are more mature than this. Communication gap between the administration and the Students:I understand that the key reason for you not attempting to discuss about solutions but rather kept increasing the wish list is lack of information. Most of us have pretty much no idea about what is happening in the institute. This communication gap is because most of us don't make use of the forums. Most of don't read emails, don't go  to SAC meetings.The one place that the institute was successful is that it created a solid system that can make changes happen in the institute and make sure that students voice is heard."If SAC meetings are getting 5% of the Attendance of the protests and hunger strikes, Is there any difference between a sensationalising media and IIT students?"The change that I wish to see in the institute is to 60% of the Institute attending the SAC meetings.

Neither (and no, Aramaic didn’t evolve from Arabic).Syriac is a variety of Aramaic, and Arabic definitely didn’t develop from it or any other varitey of Aramaic (notwithstanding a couple of others here who think Aram and Arab sounding similar is somehow evidence. It isn’t—not once you know what Aram meant in ancient times (i.e, what is now Syria: Aramaya literally means “of Syria”—a reflection of the Syrian origin of the language):Aram (region) - WikipediaIt also starts with an Aleph; Arabic’s name starts with a Ayin (and no, Aramaic didn’t lose its Ayins in ancient times, nor did Arabic gain Ayins).Arabic lacks the Northwest Semitic innovations common to both Hebrew and Aramaic (such as word-initial mutation of w to y). It also lacks Aramaic’s suffix (which then became the language’s equivalent to the definite article EDIT: I’ve found other interpretations, such as an extension of the feminine, or as an inversion of the ha pronoun—think “noun+ha”, instead if “ha+noun” (Pat-El, 2009, “The development of the Semitic Definite Article: a Syntactic approach), or its use of dhu as a purely genitive marker (Frozen itself in a genitive form).Arabic also doesn’t have Aramaic’s tendency of turning n’s to r’s ( bar in Aramaic, bin in Arabic, for example), not did it share the trend toward spirantization (so it can’t even be said to very influenced by Aramaic, beyond some loanwords. EDIT: and apparently, they got those from writing, since the pronounciation is too archaic, or just plain off***). Finally, Arabic largely lost the originaly conceptive derivation (this takes some explanation: in PS, you got a concept for a root—say m-l-k, by adding an ūt ending. So m-l-k = malkūtum* “kingship”. Arabic borrowed this word from Aramaic, but beyond a few loanwords of this form from it and Hebrew, this form was lost early in Arabic’s evolution; concepts are instead done in other ways: most commonly, like this: 3-S-b > 3aSabiyyah).Similarly, Aramaic lacks the following features that Arabic exhibited since the earliest attestations in text (as complete sentences, anyway)1-fi (Arabic for “in”)2-inna and anna (I forget the technical term in English, but they look like this in Arabic: إن، أن(.3-the use of the maf’ul form.4–negative ma (this is partly shared with Hebrew, but in Hebrew’s case it’s largely a poetic device, and is not used at all in regular speech or writing (it’s in the bible); Arabic’s ma no longer just means “what”, but also means “not”)5-broken plurals (this btw isn’t as helpful in figuring out where Arabic belongs; we’ll return to this).Finally: both are first attested withing a century of each other—not enough time for Aramaic to become Arabic (and certainly not enough to develop the complex case system Proto-Arabic had, which survives in our writing to this day: that system btw is more complex than what PS had).Arabic is currently classified as a Primary branch of Central Semitic (the other is NW Semitic—Aramaic goes here, along with Hebrew, Amorite, and possibly Sabaean and its kin, though Sabaean and its kin might themselves form a primary offshoot of Central Semitic). So the features it does share with Aramaic are typically those it inherited from proto-central-Semitic, spoken sometime before 2000BC. Keep in mind that Semitic languages exhibit signs of constant contact for long period before they split off from each other: this is why Moabite—a Canaanite dialect—has features similar to those in Aramaic and Arabic (the use of n instead of m for plurals comes to mind).So Arabic didn’t evolve from Aramaic. While we’re at it, it sure as heck didn’t evolve from Sabaean** or any other Epigraphic South Arabian Language (Arabic lacks the bizarre turn those fellows took with the case system, which uses m, n, and null to indicate various states of definitiveness; the specifics have prompted one linguist to propose that Aramaic and Sabaean are somehow related more closely than previously believed (Sabaean doens’t have the w-y change though, so…)).Additionally, the broken plural system used there and in Arabic are different in form anyway, with slightly different strategies (the differences are even greater with Ethio-Semitic). It’s now being proposed (notably by Huehnergard and al-Jallad), that all broken plurals are in fact derived from a PS strategy for plurals, lost in Akkadian and NW Semitic.So Arabic evolved directly from a proto-Central Semitic dialect. The only question is where?Well, I can tell you where it didn’t:1-Yemen: not attested there till c. The 1st Century BC. It has another issue—one shared by Oman (see below).2-Central Arabia: the Thamudic inscriptions there typically reveal an undeciphered language (if it were Arabic, we’d know: keep reading)3-Ihsa’: Arabic is found there, but it postdates the first record of either Arabic or Arabs.4-Oman: we know South Semitic languages were spoken there first: they all have a notable Cushitic substratum that Sabaean and Arabic lack. That should tell you something obvious, so I’ll not type up the paragraph needed to elaborate.5-Ethiopia: they did their own thing there too, and this is first attested around the same time Arabic is.6-the fertile crescent proper (obvious reasons).So where is Arabic from?Well, there’s one area left out: the marginal regions in what is now Jordan, the Sinai, and eastern Syria, and the Hijaz (particularly the north). That’s the only area that hasn’t been ruled out. Any inscriptions?well, yes: here are some inscriptions—mostly in Jordan and Hijaz (I’ll transliterate into the languages current writing system: any missing long vowels should be easy to fill in):مرد عل اجرفس كسر هسلسلة (if you know your Holy Land History, you can date this one)فيفعل لا فدا و لا اثرا فكن هنا يبغنا الموت لا ابغاه فكن هنا ارد جرج لا يردنالصعب بن وهب هسفرلشر بن نشدال بن فرس و هرق هنقة (the last part would be spelled nowadays as و هرّق هناقة(here’s a curse (can you spot the deity?)فهلت عورم عور حجر بعد سفر (with modern spelling: فهلّات عوّري ما عوّر حجر بعد سفر)A random king’s name from the area:حارثLet me put this way: I’ll let any Arab who reads the above take a stab at translation. There’s one word here that may be not so obvious, but context might clear it up (these are all rock inscriptions: that’s all the context needed)I mentioned tow people here: Huehnergard and al-Jallad. Their articles are readily available online, and they do a great job explaining the evidence. Conclusive? No. It’s possible more inscriptions could upend this, so this might make this all outdated anyway. But currently, that origin makes the most sense: the earliest mention of Arabs (or any Arabic word), are as soldiers fighting in Northern Syria at Qarqar, 853BC, as part of a coalition of a dozen princes against Shalmaneser III. As gindibu—their leader—is listed as a prince, this suggest they’ve been around long enough to form at least a proto-state.Anyone arguing for a Yemeni origin (or anywhere else) for the language would have to explain the earlier mention in the North, and also explain how a people in Yemen were able to bring a contingent all the way to Northern Syria—and not be noted for this by anyone. Finally, why no evidence of Arabic in the south till centuries later—by which time the Arabs produced three polities in the north (Gindibu’s Arabs, Qeder, Nabataea)?EDIT: I’ve fixed so typos, and added suggestions for further typos to be fixed.**there are two branches of Semitic represented in these inscriptions: South and Central (Ethiosemitic traditionally under the former, though it might in fact be separate). Sabaean is in the latter, as are a few of the other Old South Arabian languages.***It seems strange, until you consider that even in many Arab areas, Aramaic was used for administration (the Nabataeans were Arab, and spoke Arabic, but used Aramaic for administration. This was a pro-business policy: the Nabataeans—much like Arabs later on, and into the present—have always appreciated business: they were as much merchants as nomad and warriors.)

Brett Kavanaugh was never going to be a bed of roses for the Democrats even if he had an easy confirmation. He has a hyperpartisan history in Republican politics dating back to his role in the Ken Starr investigation of President Clinton and in the George W Bush administration.Kavanagh's angry emotional reaction to being an accused sexual molester and drunk was to blame the Democrats, the vast left wing conspiracy and the Clintons for all his troubles. He was rude to the Democratic members of the Judiciary Committee for asking pertinent questions.His behavior was undignified enough to cause 2400 law school professors to sign a petition to keep him off the court. Even 98 year old Supreme Court Justice emeritus John Paul Stevens denounced Kavanaugh.Brett Kavanaugh achieved his dream job at the cost of his professional reputation. While the Democrats can expect no favors, in the words of Justice Kavanaugh "what goes around comes around." If the Democrats take control of the House this year we can expect a slew of subpoenas of his White House records and a real investigation into whether Kavanaugh perjured himself. It may not make much difference except to make Brett even more miserable than he already is.

what are the fundamental features of a modern LMS? As you haven't said what you mean by "modern" I will make up my own definition and then answer that question. Let's say that a primitive LMS is a collection of tools--for resource sharing, discussion, syllabus, assignments, quiz/test, etc. The primitive LMS was largely used for pushing information and course content to students. In blended or online classes the discussion forum was also used for discussion activities.  The primitive LMS was about getting students to jump through the right hoops, in FERPA-induced privacy.A modern LMS (if one yet exists) is task-oriented rather than tool-or...

My short answer: No.Before i went to Japan I have Three worries to cope for living there, but turned out that were almost non-existing because of several reason.Halal Food : My first concern is how I find halal food, but it was quite easy to find halal food there, in most grocery store (my regular is Gyomu, and Aeon) they often have halal food section which usually imported and more importantly the food is cheaper because it comes in frozen product (meat, chicken, nugget etc.) compared to the fresh local ones. but if you don’t want to eat frozen food, Fish and Egg are always the best option.But hey, you can also find Indonesian food and product in Japan. the pic below is the inside of “Toko Indonesia” in Tokyo, if you far from tokyo, you can always order it online.2. Communication : Well, the communication is important to me for survival, like how to ask for directions, haggling price, requesting assistance. but my Japanese Skill was very limited prior from coming. But you can always avoid asking to local if you want to.as you see the picture below, Japanese are very good at giving sign/Illustration. just at a glance you will know where you going or what will you get. You don’t even need to read the english subtitle under the Kana word.Every shop/restaurant always have price listing and picture of menus, and the price is fixed (including tax), no need further asking.But, if you really have to ask the locals, they will try to understands you through hand gesture or body language. but don’t forget, your google translate on smartphone are your best-friend!.3. Administration : This is actually my real worries, when i was a fresh man, I always worries about missing something for my administration duty. For example: Applying ID card, living permit, electricity bills, taxes, national health Insurances. those things seems overwhelming to think.But In Japan administration are made simple, you don’t have to back and forth through office, you can always manage it via postal serviceBut no, it was easy. my cases is to apply ID card, you just only need to fill some form and less than 15 minutes you can bring home your ID card, (come to think about it, in Indonesia my ID card needs 6 months to complete, and I raised my eyebrows for that, even though I am government worker myself ).If they can’t complete that day and asked you some additional documents, you don’t need to return, just send your required paper via post, and couple days later your ID card come to your mail box.Picture above is the situation of immigration office in Yokohama.TLDR:Living japan is not hard, my concern is:Halal Food: Available everywhere.Communication: Even you don’t speak japanese, you can still survive.Administration: They keep it simple, less hassle.Disclaimer:This is my experience as student in Kanto Area, the situation may vary for different occupation and location. All pics are mine.