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As a startup founder of three years our legal housekeeping is a bit of mess, how can I best setup a system to organize and track
As a startup founder of three years myself, I can relate to how legal housekeeping can be messy. Once a year, I have our own lawyers go through and do an audit of all of our legal paperwork (which costs a couple thousand dollars to be extremely thorough, but it’s worth it). Luckily, there are now many ways to easily manage and track all of your legal, financial, and HR documents via third-party sites that specialize in these management proceedings. I wrote a blog post about this awhile back titled “5 Ways to Save Time Dealing With Documents” which highlights certain sites that can be very beneficial depending on what paperwork you’d like to track or manage. They are as follows:1. GroupDocsGroupDocs is a new, comprehensive online service for document creation and management. It has multiple features, including a viewer for reading documents in your browser, an electronic signature service, an online document converter, a document assembly service, a feature for comparing different versions of a document, and an annotation feature. An individual plan is $10 per month for limited storage and 500 documents, while a group plan for up to 9 people is $19 per user per month. Based on the number of features and pricing, GroupDoc is a good-value purchase for a small business. As you’ll see below, GroupDocs can be cheaper than a service that offers only one such feature.2. signNowWhen you’re closing a deal and need to get documents signed, the last thing you need is a slow turnaround due to fax machine problems or the postal service. The solution is to use an electronic signature service such as signNow, which is one of the most popular e-signature companies in the world. This service allows you to email your documents to the person whose signature you need. Next, the recipient undergoes a simply e-signing process, and then signNow alerts you when the process is completed. Finally, signNow electronically stores the documents, which are accessible at any time. As a result, you can easily track the progress of the signature process and create an audit trail of your documents. The “Professional” plan is recommended for sole proprietors and freelancers, and costs $180 per year ($15 per month) for up to 50 requested signatures per month. The “Workgroup” plan is geared towards teams and businesses, and it costs $240 per user per year ($20 per month per user), for unlimited requested signatures.3. signNowsignNow is another e-signature service. Similar to signNow, signNow allows you to upload a PDF file, MS Word file or web application document. Next, you can edit the document, such as by adding initials boxes or tabs, and then email them out for signatures. Once recipients e-sign the document, signNow notifies you and archives the document. signNow offers low rates for these services: a 1-person annual plan with unlimited document sending costs $11 per month. An annual plan for 10 senders with unlimited document sending costs only $39 per month.4. ExariExari is a document assembly and contract management service that assists in automating high-volume business documents, such as sales agreements or NDAs. First, the document assembly service allows authors to create automated document templates. No technical knowledge is required; most authors are business analysts and lawyers. Authors have a variety of options for customizing documents, such as fill-in-the-blank fields, optional clauses, and dynamic updating of topic headings. They also can add questions that the end user must answer. Once you send out the document, the user answers the questionnaire, and Exari uses that data to customize the document. Next, the contract management feature allows you to store and track both the templates and the signed documents. Pricing is based on the size and scope of your planned implementation, so visit their website for more information.5. FillanyPDFIt’s a hassle having to print out PDF forms in order to complete them. Fortunately, FillanyPDF is a service that allows you to edit, fill out and send any PDFs, while entirely online. This “Fill & Sign” plan costs $5 per month, or $50 per year. If you subscribe to the “Professional” plan, you can also create fillable PDFs using your own documents. With this service, any PDF, JPG or GIF file becomes fillable when you upload it to the site. You can modify a form using white-out, redaction and drawing tools. Then, you can email a link to your users, who can fill out and e-sign your form on the website. FillanyPDF also allows you to track who filled out your forms, and no downloads are necessary to access these services. The “Professional” plan costs $49 per month, or $490 per year.Switching firms can be a hassle. As a former startup attorney, I have a bit of advice about finding the right attorney for your business: it’s best to focus on the specific attorney you’ll be working with. He or she should have a solid understanding of the ins and outs of your business industry, a deep knowledge of the legal issues your startup may face, and previous work experience with startups to ensure a quality and efficient work product. This is absolutely key when matching our startup clients at UpCounsel to attorneys on our platform who can perform their legal work and hash out their legal projects in a timely manner. We also allow clients to store any and all of their legal documents directly on UpCounsel so they don’t have to go searching in alternative places for the correct paperwork. It’s proven to be a free and lightweight way to store legal documents that our clients love. Here's what it looks like:As I’ve mentioned, it’s more important to find the right attorney as opposed to the right law firm. And seeing as you’re a startup, our own startup clients typically save an average of 50-60% on their legal work, since the attorneys don't include overhead fees (a.k.a. the fees included for doing business with the firm itself) in their invoices.Hope this gives you a deeper look into what other sites and services are out there. If you have any questions or would like more information on how best to handle your legal housekeeping/ attorney matters, feel free to signNow out to me directly. As a former startup attorney at Latham & Watkins, I’d be happy to give you some guidance.
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What should I use to code an HTML and CSS webpage other than Notepad?
You have plenty of choices for IDE(Integrated Development Environment) when it comes to Web Development. To edit any HTML, CSS and JavaScript file, any simple plain text editor will work. However using a better IDE allows you to enhance your work flows and reduce the efforts of writing every single line of codes.There are many paid IDEs for web developers which have lots of features that can ease the efforts of writing and debugging codes for developers. Some popular paid IDEs are signNow Dreamweaver, UltraEdit, CoffeeCup, and many more. However, not everyone can afford to pay for such IDEs. Thanks to Open Source that are many free IDEs and code editors available that you can use to develop a website or web apps.Since there are lots of free IDE’s available, you might be confused to choose one. In this article, I will discuss 10 best and free IDE for web development in my opinion. These IDE’s will allow you to write code more efficiently with less time, easily debug your codes, preview and test your website and website.Below is the list of 10 best IDE for Web Development:1. Notepad++Flatform: WindowsNotepad++ is a free source code editor and Notepad replacement that supports several languages. Running in the MS Windows environment, its use is governed by GPL License.Based on the powerful editing component Scintilla, Notepad++ is written in C++ and uses pure Win32 API and STL which ensures a higher execution speed and smaller program size. By optimizing as many routines as possible without losing user friendliness, Notepad++ is trying to reduce the world carbon dioxide emissions. When using less CPU power, the PC can throttle down and reduce power consumption, resulting in a greener environment.Some Features of Notepad++ are:Syntax Highlighting and Syntax FoldingUser Defined Syntax Highlighting and FoldingPCRE (Perl Compatible Regular Expression) Search/ReplaceGUI entirely customizable: minimalist, tab with close button, multi-line tab, vertical tab and vertical document listDocument MapAuto-completion: Word completion, Function completion and Function parameters hintMulti-Document (Tab interface)Multi-ViewWYSIWYG (Printing)Zoom in and zoom outMulti-Language environment supportedBookmarkMacro recording and playbackLaunch with different argumentsVisit Official Site | Download Notepad++2. BracketsFlatform: Windows/ OS X/ LinuxBrackets is another free and open source editor from signNow. Brackets is a modern open-source code editor for HTML, CSS and JavaScript that’s built in HTML, CSS and JavaScript. It also includes Live Preview features and Preprocessor supports due to which it’s more popular nowadays.You get a real-time connection to your browser. When you make changes to CSS and HTML and you’ll instantly see those changes on screen. Also see where your CSS selector is being applied in the browser by simply putting your cursor on it. It’s the power of a code editor with the convenience of in-browser dev tools.Visit Official Site | Download Brackets3. Sublime TextFlatform: Windows/ Linux / OS XSublime Text is a proprietary cross-platform source code editor with a Python application programming interface (API). It natively supports many programming languages and markup languages, and its functionality can be extended by users with plugins, typically community-built and maintained under free-software licenses.Some of the features of Sublime Text are:Column selection and multi-select editingAuto completionSyntax highlight and high contrast displayIn-editor code buildingSnippetsAuto-save, which attempts to prevents users from losing their workCustomizable key bindings, a navigational tool which allows users to assign hotkeys to their choice of options in both the menus and the toolbar.Spell check function corrects as you type.A wide selection of editing commands, including indenting and unindenting, paragraph reformatting and line joining.Visit Official Site | Download Sublime Text4. RJ TextEdFlatform: WindowsRJ TextEd is a full featured text and source editor with Unicode support. It is also a very powerful web (PHP, ASP, JavaScript, HTML and CSS) development editor. The functionality extends beyond text files and includes support for CSS/HTML editing with integrated CSS/HTML preview, spell checking, auto completion, HTML validation, templates and more. The program also has a dual pane file commander, as well as a (S)FTP client to upload your files.Some of the features of this IDE are:Auto-completionCode folding.Column modeMulti edit and multi selectDocument mapAnnotation barAdvanced sortingHandles both ASCII and binary filesCSS and HTML wizardsHighlighting of colors in CSS/SASS/LESSAdvanced color hints that can convert between color formatsDockable panelsFTP and SFTP client with synchronizationFile explorer, text clips, code explorer, project manager…Convert between code pages, Unicode formats and text formatsUnicode and ANSI code page detectionOpen/Save UTF-8 encoded files without a signature (BOM)Unicode file paths and file namesHTML validation, format, and repairTools available like syntax editor, color picker, char mapVisit Official Site | Download RJ TextEd5. AtomFlatform: Windows / OS X / LinuxAtom is a text editor that’s modern, approachable, yet hackable to the core, that means that you can customize to do anything but also use productively without ever touching a config file. Download, install and start using it !Atom has a built-in package manager, search for and install new packages or start creating your own all from within Atom. Atom comes pre-installed with four UI and eight syntax themes in both dark and light colors. If you can’t find what you’re looking for, you can also install themes created by the Atom community or create your own.Atom is a desktop application built with HTML, JavaScript, CSS, and Node.js integration. It runs on Electron, a framework for building cross platform apps using web technologies.Some of the features of Atom are:Cross-platform editingBuilt-in package managerSmart autocompletionFile system browserMultiple panesEasy to find and replaceVisit Official Website | Download Atom6. Light TableFlatform: Windows / OS X / LinuxLight Table claims it to be the next generation code editor. It is an integrated development environment for software engineering developed by Chris Granger and Robert Attorri. It features real-time feedback allowing instant execution, debugging and access to documentation.The instant feedback provides an unusual execution environment intended to help developing abstractions.The development team attempted to create a program which shows the programmer what the effects of their additions are in real-time, rather than requiring them to work out the effects as they write the code. Though the program began by only supporting Clojure, it has since aimed to support Python and JavaScript due to their popularity.The developers claim that the software can reduce programming time by up to 20%.It was financed by a Kickstarter fundraising campaign and subsequently backed by Y Combinator.The Kickstarter campaign aimed to raise $200,000 USD and finished with $316,720 USD.Some of the features of Light Table are:Connects you to your creation with instant feedback and showing data values flow through your codeEasily customizable from keybinds to extensions to be completely tailored to your specific projectEmbed anything you want, from graphs to games to running visualizationsAn elegant, lightweight, beautifully designed layout so your IDE is no longer clutteredEverything from eval and debugging to a fuzzy finder for files and commands to fit seamlessly into your workflowVisit Official Website | Download Light Table7. Visual Studio CodeFlatform: Windows / OS X / LinuxVisual Studio Code is a lightweight but powerful source code editor which runs on your desktop and is available for Windows, Mac and Linux. It comes with built-in support for JavaScript, TypeScript and Node.js and has a rich ecosystem of extensions for other languages (such as C++, C#, Python, PHP) and runtimes. Visual Studio includes support for debugging, embedded Git control, syntax highlighting, intelligent code completion, snippets, and code refactoring. It is also customizable, so users can change the editor’s theme, keyboard shortcuts, and preferences. It is free and open-source, although the official download is under a proprietary license.Visual Studio Beyond goes beyond syntax highlighting and autocomplete with IntelliSense, which provides smart completions based on variable types, function definitions, and imported modules. You can even debug code right from the editor. Launch or attach to your running apps and debug with break points, call stacks, and an interactive console.Visual Studio Code is based on Electron, a framework which is used to deploy Node.js applications for the desktop running on the Blink layout engine. Although it uses the Electron framework, the software is not a fork of Atom, it is actually based on Visual Studio Online’s editor (codename “Monaco”).Some of the features of Visual Studio Code are:Intellisense, an auto complete featureBuilt-in GitBuilt in Task-RunnerEquipped with CLI named codeVisit Official Website | Download Visual Studio Code8. BluefishFlatform: Windows /OS X / LinuxBluefish is a powerful editor targeted towards programmers and webdevelopers, with many options to write websites, scripts and programming code. Bluefish supports many programming and markup languages. See features for an extensive overview, take a look at the screenshots, or download it right away. Bluefish is an open source development project, released under the GNU GPL licence.Lightweight – Bluefish tries to be lean and clean, as far as possible given it is a GUI editor.Fast – Bluefish starts really quick (even on a netbook) and loads hundreds of files within seconds.Multiple document interface, easily opens 500+ documents (tested >10000 documents simultaneously)Project support, enables you to work efficiently on multiple projects, and automatically restores settings for each project.Multi-threaded support for remote files using gvfs, supporting FTP, SFTP, HTTP, HTTPS, WebDAV, CIFS and more1Very powerful search and replace, with support for Perl Compatible regular expressions, sub-pattern replacing, and search and replace in files on disk.Open files recursively based on filename patterns and/or content patternsSnippets sidebar – specify custom dialogs, search and replace patterns or insert patterns and bind them to a shortkut key combination of your liking to speed up your development processIntegrate external programs such as make, lint, weblint, xmllint, tidy, javac, or your own program or script to handle advanced text processing or error detectionIntegrate external filters of your liking, pipe your document (or just the current selected text) through sort, sed, awk or any custom scriptUnlimited undo/redo functionalityIn-line spell checker which is programing language aware (spell check comments and strings, but not code), requires libenchant during compilation2Auto-recovery of changes in modified documents after a crash, kill or shutdownCharacter map of all unicode characters (requires libgucharmap during compilation)3Site upload / download1Full screen editingMany tools such as tabs to spaces, join lines, lines to columns, strip whitespace, etc. etc.Visit Official Website | Download Bluefish9. Aptana StudioFlatform: Windows / OS X / LinuxAptana Studio is an open source integrated development environment (IDE) for building web applications. Based on Eclipse, it supports JavaScript, HTML, DOM and CSS with code-completion, outlining, JavaScript debugging, error and warning notifications and integrated documentation. Additional plugins allow Aptana Studio to support Ruby on Rails, PHP, Python, Perl, signNow AIR, Apple iPhone and Nokia WRT (Web Runtime). Aptana Studio is available as a standalone on Windows, Mac OS X and Linux, or as a plugin for Eclipse.Aptana, Inc. is a company that makes web application development tools for Web 2.0 and Ajax for use with a variety of programming languages (such as JavaScript, Ruby, PHP and Python). Aptana’s main products include Aptana Studio, Aptana Cloud and Aptana Jaxer.Some of the features of Apatana Studio are:Deployment WizardIntegrated DebuggerGit IntegrationBuilt-in TerminalIDE CustomizationVisit Official Website | Download Aptana Studio10. Komodo EditFlatform: Windows / OS X / LinuxKomodo Edit is a free text editor for dynamic programming languages. Komodo Edit is built atop the Open Komodo project. Many of Komodo’s features are derived from an embedded Python interpreter. Komodo is faster and easier-to-use. New integrations with build systems let you stay in-the-zone and get more done.Some of the features of Komodo Edit are:Integrated debugger supportDocument Object Model (DOM) viewerInteractive shellsSource Code control integrationAbility to select the engine used to run regular expressionsVisit Official Website | Download Komodo EditWrapping UpThe above mentioned are some of the best IDE for Web Development that are available for free. Being myself a Web Designer, my personal favourite is Sublime Text, Brackets and Visual Studio Code. However, I do most of the coding in Sublime Text since it’s very to code due to auto completion, code hints, built-in plugins and much more.Source : 10 Best IDE for Web Development for Free - Technowing
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How do I learn digital marketing?
Do you wish to have a profession in a developing industry? Do you wish to work in an industry that needs diverse skills? Do you want to initiate your profession that allows freelancing? If yes, then digital marketing would be the right choice to start with. At the present time, the digital economy is developing as quickly and so it's the ideal time for everybody to fuse this marketing into the business.In fact, the government is spending more money to convert the world fully digital which had simultaneously increased the job openings. Despite the fact that it's a highly competitive industry, there are more huge potential outcomes for keeping your toe in front of everybody with some simple steps.“Digital marketing stands out amongst the most energizing and testing ventures and it doesn't require any formal qualification to start your career.”All in all, need to know how to begin your profession with digital marketing? Here's the ticket.Okay, we have gathered profitable tips for prospective advertisers to begin their profession right now. Let's look over the step by step guide to start your digital marketing career.Eagerness To LearnThe field is unimaginably aggressive thus it requires commitment, enthusiasm, and desire to win in the business. Experts need to be skilled in PPC, SEO, SMO and different sorts of acronyms to begin with this industry. All things considered, it is straightforward for organizations to work among various personas thus it is exceptionally important to be able to learn. What's more, the industry requires higher excitement and the plan to succeed.Be a Pro In BasicsBefore quitting your previous profession, it is dependably the correct decision to be acquainted with a portion of the nuts and bolts of the business. You can check the websites like Moz, QuickSprout, HubSpot, CopyBlogger, Crazy Eggs, Search Engine Land, and so on to learn the basics of digital marketing.Discover Your TrainerHaving a mentor is more important than anything that you did before as mentors can help you from their experience. Having somebody near you for getting guidance can assist you in moving a stage ahead and connect. Today, a large portion of the community is anticipating offering their time for their juniors, so don't be reluctant to ask them. If you feel odd to have a personal trainer for you, then just go for some digital marketing training institutes to achieve in your profession.Get A Substantial InternshipFinding a perfect internship that suits your profession's objective and intrigue is a difficult task, and it will show off the right way to start your first job. When you have fulfilled a couple of clients, then you'll get the ideal opportunity to contribute yourself. Truly, it will be a superior opportunity to find out the business to showcase your skills.Make Use Of Social Media PlatformsDigital Marketing is exclusively more than what you think. It's the best stage to see how the brand communicates with clients, strengthens the relationship, makes leads and after that deals. Know how this functions and then you'll step by step be on the pathway of accomplishment.Know the latest trendsWish to grow your career with business? The best method to accomplish your dreams is to monitor the popular digital marketing blogs and the most impacting individuals via social networking sites. So to have a wild ride, you ought to have your eye on the most recent changes.Moreover,Twitter - the best resource for social occasion newsFacebook - the best asset for having an association with the field related networksLinkedIn - the most exceptional asset to learn industry patterns, associate with experts and stepstone for your potential employmentBe Strong In AnalyticsHave enough details regarding the money that you have spent on your campaign and the revenue you have earned. Indeed, it's a simple errand to enhance your innovation. In this way, you should be knowledgeable about the execution of the marketing channels.Get CertificationsAnybody with zeal can get into this field effectively, yet the truth is candidates in the best positions have some accreditations in digital marketing. There are some short-term digital marketing training courses available in prevalent metros which you can use to get ready for your certification exams. This will make you unique from everybody who has experience, however, no certificates.Last Thoughts!Hope that I have covered everything. Is this step by step special guide for a career in digital marketing simple?What are you still thinking about?The entire thing in this field depends on you and your efforts. Hope that these tips will help you in achieving your dreams.I can guarantee you that you'll never be bored once you entered into the field.Learn Digital Marketing
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Will they let me vote if I bring Aadhaar card instead of voter id card? Provided, my name is there in the voter lists of my cons
vote - My choice - A guide for votersShareViewsView Edit Suggest ContributorsState: Open for EditMy vote - My choice - A guide for votersElections - how important it is for an Indian citizenWho can vote in a election?Why should I vote?FAQs related to votingFAQs related to Electoral rollsFAQs related to Voter ID cardFAQs related to Voting processNOTA - None of the Above is also a candidate now in electionElections - how important it is for an Indian citizenElections is important for the citizens of India because it isA chance given to him/ her to decide the governing authorities be it at the centre / state / municipality / panchayat.A golden opportunity to exercise his / her constitutional right and participate in a democratic exerciseWho can vote in a election?A person is eligible to vote if s/he isA citizen of India andHas completed 18 years of age as on 1st January, 2017 andHas registered as a voter in the current electoral roll of the constituency where s/he ordinarily resides.Citizens of unsound mind and declared so by a competent court or those who are temporarily disqualified from voting under any law relating to corrupt practices and other election offence cannot voteWhy should I vote?Your most sacred rightYour right is the at the heart of our democracyYour chance to decide your future & that of your fellow citizensGives you the ultimate power to shape the destiny of your countryEvery vote countsFAQs related to votingHow can I register/enroll myself as a voter?You have to file the application (Form 6, along with the supporting documents for proof of address, date of birth etc.) before the Electoral Registration Officer / Assistant Electoral Registration Officer of the constituency within which your place of ordinary residence falls. Normally, you need not appear in person. You can also apply online. To access the link, click here.Once this is done, your name will appear on the ‘electoral rolls’ for the constituency, which is mandatory for you to vote in an election. To search your name on the rolls and find other details relating to your constituency, click here.You will need to submit documents showing proof of age only if you are between 18 and 21 years of age. In all other cases, your declaration will be taken as proof of age.My name has been spelled wrongly in the roll! How can I correct mistakes like this?For correction of mistakes in electoral rolls, you can submit an application (Form 8 )to the concerned Electoral Registration Officer. To apply for rectification online click here.My name is on the rolls, now how do I find out which polling booth I have to go to?You can find out this information from the Electoral Registration Officer of your area. Electoral rolls in all major cities have now been displayed on official websites also. To find this information, click here.Once your name is on the rolls, you also need an identity document to be able to cast your vote - this ID is typically issued by the Election Commission of India (“ECI”) and is known as the Electors’ Photo Identity Card (EPIC, more commonly as the Voter ID card.)How do I obtain the Voter ID Card? What is its significance in casting my vote?The ECI issues the Voter ID card to citizens after their names have successfully been included in the electoral rolls of their constituency. The ECI has made voter identification mandatory at the time of poll - you have to show your Voter ID Card issued by the ECI or any other documentary proof allowed by the ECI in order to be able to vote.However, also keep in mind that just because you have your Voter ID Card does not mean that you will definitely be allowed to vote - because it is mandatory that your name should appear in the electoral roll. Once you have found out that your name is present on the electoral roll and you also possess an identification document prescribed by the ECI (the Voter ID card or any other acceptable document), you are entitled to vote.I was registered to vote in my home state, but now I have moved for my job. Can I enroll in more than one place? If not, how can I transfer my vote?You cannot be enrolled as a voter at more than one place. While applying for fresh enrolment, you have to make a statement or declaration stating that your name is not already included in the electoral roll of any other constituency. (If you make a false statement or declaration, you can be punished (The Representation of People Act 1950 Section 31) with jail time of upto one year, or fine, or both)If you have shifted your home, and your new home is in the same constituency, you need to fill Form 8A and submit the same to the Electoral Registration Officer / Assistant Electoral Registration Officer. To apply online, click here. If your new home is in a different constituency, you need to fill up (Form 6 again (same as in the case of a fresh application).I went to the polling booth, but someone has already voted in my name! What can I do?If the Polling Officer tells you after you have signNowed the polling station that your vote has already been cast, you should immediately bring this to the attention of the Presiding Officer. In such a case, the Presiding Officer may ask you questions to confirm your identity. Once he/she is convinced that your identity is genuine, he or she will give you a tendered ballot paper and you will be allowed to cast a ‘Tendered Vote’ (according to Rule 42 of The Conduct of Elections Rules, 1961). A tendered ballot paper is the same as the ballot paper displayed on the balloting unit, except that it will be endorsed (either stamped or written) with the words ‘Tendered Ballot Paper’ on the back.After marking your choice of candidate, you should hand over the tendered ballot paper to the Presiding Officer, who will keep it in a separate cover. In such a case, you will not cast your vote on the Electronic Voting Machine. Courts have said that tendered votes should be taken into account only when they are likely to affect the outcome of the election, i.e. when the margin of victory is less than the number of tendered votes.How do I pursue any complaints or objections?If you have any grievance in regard to electoral roll, Voter ID or any other election related matter you may approach the following officers:Chief Electoral Officer – At the State LevelDistrict Election Officer – At the District LevelReturning Officer – At the Constituency LevelAssistant Returning Officer – At Taluka/Tahsil LevelElectoral Registration Officer – At the Constituency LevelPresiding Officer – At Polling StationZonal Officer – For a group of Polling stationsDuring every election, the ECI also appoints ‘Observers’ who are senior civil service officers from outside the state. You can also approach them if you have any grievances or problems. You may find details for some of these officers in your area here.Source: NyaayaFAQs related to Electoral rollsWhat is an electoral roll?An electoral roll is a Voters list which has the list of all eligible citizens who are entitled to vote in an election. It is prepared for each Assembly Constituency. Each electoral roll is further sub-divided into parts. Normally, one part will correspond with one polling booth. Polling booths are set up so that no voter should ordinarily travel more than 2 kms to signNow the booth.Why is the electoral roll important to me?Having your name in the electoral roll is the first and foremost requirement for you to vote. It is your duty to find whether your name has been registered in the roll or not.How do I check my name in the electoral roll?You first need to find out the name of the assembly constituency where you reside. You have the following options to check your name in the list:Contact the Electoral Registration Officer of your areaFind out from the website of the CEO of your state. Visit http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/Link... for details.Usually all states have now the provision to get the status through SMS. For eg. for NCT of Delhi, Send SMS: EPICVoter ID Card Number to 9211728082.Call the toll-free election helpline no. 1950FAQs related to Voter ID cardWhy should I have a voter ID card?Voter identification is mandatory at the time of pollTo cast your vote, you have to identify yourself with your Voter ID issued by the Election Commission or by the Photo Voter Slip issued by the Election Office or by alternate documents prescribed by the Election CommissionVoter ID is also known as Electors’ Photo Identity Card (EPIC)I have a Voter ID; is it enough to vote?No, having Voter ID is not in itself a sufficient condition to cast vote. You can vote only if your name appears in the current electoral roll of your constituency. Hence, you can vote if your name is there in the roll and you have an ID prescribed by the Election Commission.I have lost/misplaced my Voter ID; does this mean that I cannot cast my vote in this Election?No, you can still vote by producing the Photo Voter slip issued by the Election Office or alternative documents prescribed by the Election Commission.What is a Photo Voter Slip?A Photo Voter Slip is a voter slip with your photo (if present in the voters list) issued by the election office.It facilitates you to know where you are enrolled as a voter at a particular polling station & serial number in the voters listIt will be in the language in which the voters list is published for your constituencyIt will be accepted as your identity proof at the polling stationHow can I get my Photo Voter Slip?It will be given to you at your residence by the Booth Level Officer for your area. In case you misplace it or do not get it by the day of voting, you can collect it on the poll day from the Booth Level Officer positioned outside the polling station at the Voter Assistance Booth.My photograph in the Voter ID does not match with the photo in the voters list; can I still cast my vote?Yes, you can still cast your vote (provided your name is in the current electoral roll), by producing any of your following alternative photo documents:PassportDriving LicenseService identity cards with photograph issued to employees by Central / State Govt. PSUs / Public limited companiesPassbooks with photograph issued by Bank / Post OfficePAN cardAADHAAR cardSmart card issued by RGI under NPRMNREGA Job CardHealth insurance smart card issued under the scheme of M/o LabourPension document with photographFAQs related to Voting processWhat is the time allotted for voting?From 07:00 AM to 06:00 PM in general in all constituenciesFrom 07:00 AM to 05:00 PM in the North Eastern RegionFrom 07:00 AM to 04:00 PM in Manipur & NagalandFrom 07:00 AM to 04:00 PM in some other constituenciesYou can find out the poll hours for your constituency from the website of the Election Commission www.eci.nic.inThe Commission has also instructed the CEOs/DEOs to give wide publicity regarding the same in their states/districts.Where do I go to cast my vote?You can find out the name and address of your polling station from the Photo Voters slip issued to you by the Election OfficeYou can also find this out from the website of the Election Commission of India ( www.eci.nic.in ):Locations of most polling stations in the country have been plotted on mapsYou need to click on the tab ‘Polling Station Maps’ on the ECI websiteYou would then see the names of the States/UTs for which maps of polling stations are availableIf maps are available for your state/UT, you can:Select your State/UTSelect District, Assembly Constituency and Polling Station names from drop down listsClick a button to see Polling Station Locations of the selected area on the map viewer on the page.Polling Station Locations are seen as Pins dropped on the map for each Polling Station.On clicking on the Pin, a balloon opens up showing the names and cell phone numbers of the Chief Electoral Officer, District Election Officer, Electoral Registration Officer and Booth Level OfficerThere is also a link provided for Electoral Rolls. On clicking this link, Electoral Roll for that Polling Station opens up in PDF format and can be saved by the user on his local computer and also printed from the local computer.What is the step-by step process to voteThe process is as followsStage 0: signNowing the Polling StationYou must carry your Voter ID, Photo Voter Slip or other alternative photo document as required for identifying yourself at the polling stationIt is advisable to leave your mobile phone at homeIf you take a private vehicle to signNow the polling station, you should park the vehicle at a reasonable distance - usually more than 200 metres - away from the polling stationWhen you signNow the polling station, entry will be regulated by queuesThere will be separate queues for men and women voters and for physically handicapped personsAt a time, 3 – 4 voters will be allowed into the polling stationPhysically handicapped voters and women voters with babies in arm will be given precedence over other voters in the queueStage 1: Establishment of your IdentityYou should first go to the First Polling Officer who is in charge of the marked copy of the electoral roll and responsible for identification of voters.You should keep your identity document ready to show to the First Polling Officer.You can also show to him/her the unofficial identity slip giving your particulars. However, you should remember that the unofficial identity slip only helps in locating your name in the electoral roll; it is not a guarantee of your identification.Your name and serial number will then be called out by the First Polling Officer so that the polling agents become aware of your presence and your identity is not challenged.Stage 2: Marking of indelible ink, obtaining of your signature or thumb impression & Issue of signed Voter’s slip(s)If your identity is not challenged, you should proceed to the Second Polling OfficerHe/she will mark your left forefinger with the indelible ink.He/she will then proceed to record your serial number in the electoral roll in the Register of Voters.Once this is recorded, you should sign in the appropriate column in the Register of Voters.If you cannot sign, your thumb impression will be obtained.Now, in case of election to only Lok Sabha: The Second Polling Officer will give you a signed voter’s slip.In case of simultaneous elections to both Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assembly: The Third Polling Officer, who will be sharing the table with the Second Polling Officer, will give you two identical voter’s slips – one on white paper and the other on pink paper. He will then direct you to the Fourth Polling Officer.The voter’s slip(s) will record your serial number in the register of voters and your serial number in the electoral roll.Stage 3: Activation of Ballot Unit for the Lok Sabha ElectionYou should then proceed to the Third Polling Officer (in case of election to only Lok Sabha) or Fourth Polling Officer (in case of simultaneous elections).He will take the voter’s slip for Lok Sabha election issued to you by the Second Polling Officer (in case of election to only Lok Sabha) or Third Polling Officer (in case of simultaneous elections).He will then press the "Ballot" button on the Control Unit of voting machine for the Lok Sabha Election, thus activating the Ballot Unit in the voting compartment for the Lok Sabha election.He/she will then direct you to the voting compartment for the Lok Sabha election.Stage 4: Casting your vote on the Ballot Unit for the Lok Sabha ElectionYou should then record your vote on the ballot unit of the voting machine for the Lok Sabha election.You should remember that each voter will proceed to the voting compartment in exactly the same sequence in which his/her serial number is recorded in the voters’ register.In case of election to only Lok Sabha: The voting procedure ends here. You should then leave the polling station and clear way for other voters.In case of simultaneous elections, proceed to Stage 5.Stage 5: Activation of Ballot Unit for the Assembly ElectionAfter casting your vote for the Lok Sabha election, you should proceed to the Fifth Polling Officer.He will take the voter’s slip for Assembly Election issued to you by the Third Polling Officer.He will then press the "Ballot" button on the Control Unit of voting machine for the Assembly Election, thus activating the Ballot Unit in the voting compartment for the Assembly election.He/she will then direct you to the voting compartment for the Assembly election.Stage 6: Casting your vote on the Ballot Unit for the Assembly ElectionYou should then record your vote on the ballot unit of the voting machine for the Assembly electionThe voting procedure ends here. You should then leave the polling station and clear way for other voters.Things to Remember while Inside the Voting CompartmentYou should press the blue candidate button on the Balloting Unit against the name and symbol of the candidate of your choice.You may also press the new None of the Above (NOTA) button at the end of the unit if you don’t want to vote for any candidateYou should press the button only once.When you press the blue button, you should watch out for:The red lamp glowing against the name and symbol of your candidateThe beep sound to indicate that your vote has been recordedSimultaneously, the busy lamp in the Control Unit will go off.With this, your vote is cast.What if someone else has cast the vote in my name?The First Polling Officer may tell you on arrival inside the polling station that your vote has already been castIf this happens, you should inform this to the Presiding Officer immediatelyThe law allows you to cast a Tendered VoteA Tendered Ballot Paper, as per Rule 49P of the Conduct of Elections Rules, will be given to youIf you choose to vote, you will be required to:sign your name on the list of tendered votesmark your choice of candidate with the help of Arrow Cross Mark rubber stamp on the ballot paper given to youhand over the tendered ballot paper to the Presiding OfficerIn this case, you will not cast your vote on the EVMA Tendered Ballot Paper is the same as the ballot paper displayed on the balloting unit, except that it shall be endorsed on the back, with the words, “Tendered Ballot Paper” either stamped by the Returning or written by the Presiding Officer in hand at the time of issuing it.Source : PIBNOTA - None of the Above is also a candidate now in electionOn 27 September 2013, the Supreme Court of India ruled that the right to register a "none of the above" vote in elections should apply, and ordered the Election Commission to provide such a button in the electronic voting machines, noting that it would increase participation.NOTA imageThe Election Commission of India has introduced a specific symbol, like other election symbols, for ‘None of the Above (NOTA)’ option, to facilitate the voters in exercising their NOTA option. This symbol will appear in the last panel on all Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and the others ballot papers against the ‘None of the Above (NOTA)’ option at all elections to be held.The main objective of the ‘NOTA’ option is to enable electors who do not wish to vote for any of the candidates to exercise their right not to vote for any candidate without violation of the secrecy of their decision. In earlier times, eligible voters who want to reject all contesting candidates for a constituency had the option of filling Form 49-O at a voting booth but this compromised the secrecy of the ballot.Source : Election Commission of India and PIB
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What is big data and how do I learn about it?
What is big data and how do I learn about it?Big Data is defined by the three V’s:Volume—large amounts of data;Variety—the data comes in different forms, including traditional databases, images, documents, and complex records;Velocity—the content of the data is constantly changing through the absorption of complementary data collections, the introduction of previously archived data or legacy collections, and from streamed data arriving from multiple sources.It is important to distinguish Big Data from “lots of data” or “massive data.” In a Big Data Resource, all three V’s must apply. It is the size, complexity, and restlessness of Big Data resources that account for the methods by which these resources are designed, operated, and analyzed.The term “lots of data” is often applied to enormous collections of simple-format records. For example every observed star, its magnitude and its location; the name and cell phone number of every person living in the United States; and the contents of the Web.These very large datasets are sometimes just glorified lists. Some “lots of data” collections are spreadsheets (2-dimensional tables of columns and rows), so large that we may never see where they end.Big Data resources are not equivalent to large spreadsheets, and a Big Data resource is never analyzed in its totality. Big Data analysis is a multi-step process whereby data is extracted, filtered, and transformed, with analysis often proceeding in a piecemeal, sometimes recursive, fashion. As you read this book, you will find that the gulf between “lots of data” and Big Data is profound; the two subjects can seldom be discussed productively within the same venue.Big Data Versus Small DataActually, the main function of Big Science is to generate massive amounts of reliable and easily accessible data... Insight, understanding, and scientific progress are generally achieved by ‘small science.’Big Data is not small data that has become bloated to the point that it can no longer fit on a spreadsheet, nor is it a database that happens to be very large. Nonetheless, some professionals who customarily work with relatively small data sets, harbor the false impression that they can apply their spreadsheet and database know-how directly to Big Data resources without attaining new skills or adjusting to new analytic paradigms.As they see things, when the data gets bigger, only the computer must adjust (by getting faster, acquiring more volatile memory, and increasing its storage capabilities); Big Data poses no special problems that a supercomputer could not solve. More information please refer to the Office 2019 Guide.This attitude, which seems to be prevalent among database managers, programmers, and statisticians, is highly counterproductive. It will lead to slow and ineffective software, huge investment losses, bad analyses, and the production of useless and irreversibly defective Big Data resources.Let us look at a few of the general differences that can help distinguish Big Data and small data. – Goals small data—Usually designed to answer a specific question or serve a particular goal. Big Data—Usually designed with a goal in mind, but the goal is flexible and the questions posed are protean.Here is a short, imaginary funding announcement for Big Data grants designed “to combine high-quality data from fisheries, coast guard, commercial shipping, and coastal management agencies for a growing data collection that can be used to support a variety of governmental and commercial management studies in the Lower Peninsula.”In this fictitious case, there is a vague goal, but it is obvious that there really is no way to completely specify what the Big Data resource will contain, how the various types of data held in the resource will be organized, connected to other data resources, or usefully analyzed. Nobody can specify, with any degree of confidence, the ultimate destiny of any Big Data project; it usually comes as a surprise.– Locationsmall data—Typically, contained within one institution, often on one computer, sometimes in one file.Big Data—Spread throughout electronic space and typically parceled onto multiple Internet servers, located anywhere on earth.– Data structure and content small data—Ordinarily contains highly structured data. The data domain is restricted to a single discipline or sub-discipline. The data often comes in the form of uniform records in an ordered spreadsheet.PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BIG DATABig Data—Must be capable of absorbing unstructured data (e.g., such as free-text documents, images, motion pictures, sound recordings, physical objects). The subject matter of the resource may cross multiple disciplines, and the individual data objects in the resource may link to data contained in other, seemingly unrelated, Big Data resources.– Data preparationsmall data—In many cases, the data user prepares her own data, for her own purposes. Big Data—The data comes from many diverse sources, and it is prepared by many people. The people who use the data are seldom the people who have prepared the data.– Longevitysmall data—When the data project ends, the data is kept for a limited time (seldom longer than 7 years, the traditional academic life-span for research data); and then discarded.Big Data—Big Data projects typically contain data that must be stored in perpetuity. Ideally, the data stored in a Big Data resource will be absorbed into other data resources. Many Big Data projects extend into the future and the past (e.g., legacy data), accruing data prospectively and retrospectively.– Measurementssmall data—Typically, the data is measured using one experimental protocol, and the data can be represented using one set of standard units.Big Data—Many different types of data are delivered in many different electronic formats. Measurements, when present, may be obtained by many different protocols. Verifying the quality of Big Data is one of the most difficult tasks for data managers. [Glossary Data Quality Act]– Reproducibilitysmall data—Projects are typically reproducible. If there is some question about the quality of the data, the reproducibility of the data, or the validity of the conclusions drawn from the data, the entire project can be repeated, yielding a new data set.Big Data—Replication of a Big Data project is seldom feasible. In general, the most that anyone can hope for is that bad data in a Big Data resource will be found and flagged as such.– Stakessmall data—Project costs are limited. Laboratories and institutions can usually recover from the occasional small data failure.Big Data—Big Data projects can be obscenely expensive. A failed Big Data effort can lead to bankruptcy, institutional collapse, mass firings, and the sudden disintegration of all the data held in the resource. As an example, a United States National Institutes of Health Big Data project known as the “NCI cancer biomedical informatics grid” cost at least $350 million for fiscal years 2004–10.An ad hoc committee reviewing the resource found that despite the intense efforts of hundreds of cancer researchers and information specialists, it had accomplished so little and at so great an expense that a project moratorium was called.Soon thereafter, the resource was terminated. Though the costs of failure can be high, in terms of money, time, and labor, Big Data failures may have some redeeming value. Each failed effort lives on as intellectual remnants consumed by the next Big Data effort.– Introspectionsmall data—Individual data points are identified by their row and column location within a spreadsheet or database table. If you know the row and column headers, you can find and specify all of the data points contained within.Big Data—Unless the Big Data resource is exceptionally well designed, the contents and organization of the resource can be inscrutable, even to the data managers. Complete access to data, information about the data values, and information about the organization of the data are achieved through a technique herein referred to as introspection.– Analysissmall data—In most instances, all of the data contained in the data project can be analyzed together, and all at once.Big Data—With few exceptions, such as those conducted on supercomputers or in parallel on multiple computers, Big Data is ordinarily analyzed in incremental steps. The data are extracted, reviewed, reduced, normalized, transformed, visualized, interpreted, and re-analyzed using a collection of specialized methods.Whence Comest Big Data?Often, the impetus for Big Data is entirely ad hoc. Companies and agencies are forced to store and retrieve huge amounts of collected data (whether they want to or not). Generally, Big Data comes into existence through any of several different mechanisms:– An entity has collected a lot of data in the course of its normal activities and seeks to organize the data so that materials can be retrieved, as needed.The Big Data effort is intended to streamline the regular activities of the entity. In this case, the data is just waiting to be used. The entity is not looking to discover anything or to do anything new. It simply wants to use the data to accomplish what it has always been doing;only better. The typical medical center is a good example of an “accidental” Big Data resource. The day-to-day activities of caring for patients and recording data into hospital information systems results in terabytes of collected data, in forms such as laboratory reports, pharmacy orders, clinical encounters, and billing data.Most of this information is generated for one-time specific use (e.g., supporting a clinical decision, collecting payments for a procedure). It occurs to the administrative staff that the collected data can be used, in its totality, to achieve mandated goals: improving the quality of service, increasing staff efficiency, and reducing operational costs.– An entity has collected a lot of data in the course of its normal activities and decides that there are many new activities that could be supported by their data.Consider modern corporations; these entities do not restrict themselves to one manufacturing process or one target audience. They are constantly looking for new opportunities.Their collected data may enable them to develop new products based on the preferences of their loyal customers, to signNow new markets, or to market and distribute items via the Web. These entities will become hybrid Big Data/manufacturing enterprises.– An entity plans a business model based on a Big Data resource.Unlike the previous examples, this entity starts with Big Data and adds a physical component secondarily. Amazon and FedEx may fall into this category, as they began with a plan for providing a data-intense service (e.g., the Amazon Web catalog and the FedEx package tracking system).The traditional tasks of warehousing, inventory, pick-up, and delivery had been available all along but lacked the novelty and efficiency afforded by Big Data.– An entity is part of a group of entities that have large data resources, all of whom understand that it would be to their mutual advantage to federate their data resources.An example of a federated Big Data resource would be hospital databases that share electronic medical health records.– An entity with skills and vision develops a project wherein large amounts of data are collected and organized, to the benefit of themselves and their user-clients.An example would be a massive online library service, such as the U.S. National Library of Medicine’s PubMed catalog, or the Google Books collection.– An entity has no data and has no particular expertise in Big Data technologies, but it has money and vision.The entity seeks to fund and coordinate a group of data creators and data holders, who will build a Big Data resource that can be used by others. Government agencies have been the major benefactors. These Big Data projects are justified if they lead to important discoveries that could not be attained at a lesser cost with smaller data resources.The Most Common Purpose of Big Data Is to Produce Small DataIf I had known what it would be like to have it all, I might have been willing to settle for less.Imagine using a restaurant locater on your smartphone. With a few taps, it lists the Italian restaurants located within a 10-block radius of your current location.The database being queried is big and complex (a map database, a collection of all the restaurants in the world, their longitudes and latitudes, their street addresses, and a set of ratings provided by patrons, updated continuously), but the data that it yields is small (e.g., five restaurants, marked on a street map, with pop-ups indicating their exact address, telephone number, and ratings). Your task comes down to selecting one restaurant from among the five, and dining thereat.In this example, your data selection was drawn from a large data set, but your ultimate analysis was confined to a small data set (i.e., five restaurants meeting your search criteria). The purpose of the Big Data resource was to proffer the small data set. No analytic work was performed on the Big Data resource; just search and retrieval.The real labor of the Big Data resource involved collecting and organizing complex data so that the resource would be ready for your query. Along the way, the data creators had many decisions to make (e.g., Should bars be counted as restaurants? What about takeaway only shops? What data should be collected? How should missing data be handled? How will data be kept current?Big Data is seldom if ever, analyzed in toto. There is almost always a drastic filtering process that reduces Big Data into smaller data. This rule applies to scientific analyses. The Australian Square Kilometre Array of radio telescopes [8], WorldWide Telescope, CERN’s Large Hadron Collider and the Pan-STARRS (Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System) array of telescopes produce petabytes of data every day. Researchers use these raw data sources to produce much smaller data sets for analysis [9].Here is an example showing how workable subsets of data are prepared from Big Data resources. Blazars are rare super-massive black holes that release jets of energy that move at near-light speeds. Cosmologists want to know as much as they can about these strange objects. A first step to studying blazars is to locate as many of these objects as possible.Afterward, various measurements on all of the collected blazars can be compared, and their general characteristics can be determined. Blazars seem to have a gamma ray signature that is not present in other celestial objects. The WISE survey collected infrared data on the entire observable universe.Researchers extracted from the Wise data every celestial body associated with an infrared signature in the gamma-ray range that was suggestive of blazars; about 300 objects. Further research on these 300 objects led the researchers to believe that about half were blazars [10]. This is how Big Data research often works; by constructing small data sets that can be productively analyzed.Because a common role of Big Data is to produce small data, a question that data managers must ask themselves is: “Have I prepared my Big Data resource in a manner that helps it become a useful source of small data?”Big Data Sits at the Center of the Research UniverseIn the past, scientists followed a well-trodden path toward truth: hypothesis, then experiment, then data, then analysis, then publication. The manner in which a scientist analyzed his or her data was crucial because other scientists would not have access to the same data and could not re-analyze the data for themselves.Basically, the results and conclusions described in the manuscript was the scientific product. The primary data upon which the results and conclusion were based (other than one or two summarizing tables) were not made available for review. Scientific knowledge was built on trust. Customarily, the data would be held for 7 years, and then discarded.In the Big data paradigm, the concept of a final manuscript has little meaning. Big Data resources are permanent, and the data within the resource is immutable. Any scientist’s analysis of the data does not need to be the final word; another scientist can access and re-analyze the same data over and over again.Original conclusions can be validated or discredited. New conclusions can be developed. The centerpiece of science has moved from the manuscript, whose conclusions are tentative until validated, to the Big Data resource, whose data will be tapped repeatedly to validate old manuscripts and spawn new manuscripts.Today, hundreds or thousands of individuals might contribute to a Big Data resource. The data in the resource might inspire dozens of major scientific projects, hundreds of manuscripts, thousands of analytic efforts, and millions or billions of search and retrieval operations. The Big Data resource has become the central, massive object around which universities, research laboratories, corporations, and federal agencies orbit.These orbiting objects draw information from the Big Data resource, and they use the information to support analytic studies and to publish manuscripts. Because Big Data resources are permanent, any analysis can be critically examined using the same set of data, or re-analyzed anytime in the future. Because Big Data resources are constantly growing forward in time (i.e., accruing new information) and backward in time (i.e., absorbing legacy data sets), the value of the data is constantly increasing.Big Data resources are the stars of the modern information universe. All matter in the physical universe comes from heavy elements created inside stars, from lighter elements.All data in the informational universe is complex data built from simple data. Just as stars can exhaust themselves, explode, or even collapse under their own weight to become black holes; Big Data resources can lose funding and die, release their contents and burst into nothingness, or collapse under their own weight, sucking everything around them into a dark void. It is an interesting metaphor.GlossaryBig Data resource A Big Data collection that is accessible for analysis. Readers should understand that there are collections of Big Data (i.e., data sources that are large, complex, and actively growing) that are not designed to support analysis; hence, not Big Data resources.Such Big Data collections might include some of the older hospital information systems, which were designed to deliver individual patient records upon request; but could not support projects wherein all of the data contained in all of the records were opened for selection and analysis. Aside from privacy and security issues, opening a hospital information system to these kinds of analyses would place enormous computational stress on the systems (i.e., produce system crashes).In the late 1990s and the early 2000s, data warehousing was popular. Large organizations would collect all of the digital information created within their institutions, and these data were stored as Big Data collections, called data warehouses. If an authorized person within the institution needed some specific set of information (e.g., emails sent or received in February 2003; all of the bills paid in November 1999), it could be found somewhere within the warehouse.For the most part, these data warehouses were not true Big Data resources because they were not organized to support a full analysis of all of the contained data. Another type of Big Data collection that may or may not be considered a Big Data resource are compilations of scientific data that are accessible for analysis by private concerns, but closed for analysis by the public.In this case, a scientist may make a discovery based on her analysis of a private Big Data collection, but the research data is not open for critical review. In the opinion of some scientists, including myself, if the results of data analysis are not available for review, then the analysis is illegitimate. Of course, this opinion is not universally shared, and Big Data professionals hold various definitions for a Big Data resource.ConclusionsConclusions are the interpretations made by studying the results of an experiment or a set of observations. The term “results” should never be used interchangeably with the term “conclusions.” Remember, results are verified. Conclusions are validated.Data Quality Act In the United States the data upon which public policy is based must have quality and must be available for review by the public. Simply put, public policy must be based on verifiable data. The Data Quality Act of 2002 requires the Office of Management and Budget to develop government-wide standards for data quality.Data manager This book uses “data manager” as a catchall term, without attaching any specific meaning to the name. Depending on the institutional and cultural milieu, synonyms and plesionyms (i.e., near-synonyms) for data manager would include technical lead, team liaison, data quality manager, chief curator, chief of operations, project manager, group supervisor, and so on.Data resource A collection of data made available for data retrieval. The data can be distributed over servers located anywhere on earth or in space. The resource can be static (i.e., having a fixed set of data), or in flux. Pseudonyms for data resource is a data warehouse, data repository, data archive, and data store.Database A software application designed specifically to create and retrieve large numbers of data records (e.g., millions or billions). The data records of a database are persistent, meaning that the application can be turned off, then on, and all the collected data will be available to the user.Grid A collection of computers and computer resources (typically networked servers) that are coordinated to provide the desired functionality. In the most advanced Grid computing architecture, requests can be broken into computational tasks that are processed in parallel on multiple computers and transparently (from the client’s perspective) assembled and returned. The Grid is the intellectual predecessor of Cloud computing. Cloud computing is less physically and administratively restricted than Grid computing.ImmutabilityImmutability is the principle that data collected in a Big Data resource is permanent and can never be modified. At first thought, it would seem that immutability is a ridiculous and impossible constraint. In the real world, mistakes are made, information changes, and the methods for describing information changes. This is all true, but the astute Big Data manager knows how to accrue informa-tion into data objects without changing the pre-existing data.IntrospectionWell-designed Big Data resources support introspection, a method whereby data objects within the resource can be interrogated to yield their properties, values, and class membership. Through introspection, the relationships among the data objects in the Big Data resource can be examined and the structure of the resource can be determined. Introspection is the method by which a data user can find everything there is to know about a Big Data resource without downloading the complete resource.Large Hadron Collider The Large Hadron Collider is the world’s largest and most powerful particle accelerator and is expected to produce about 15 petabytes (15 million gigabytes) of data annually.Legacy data Data collected by an information system that has been replaced by a newer system, and which cannot be immediately integrated into the newer system’s database. For example, hospitals regularly replace their hospital information systems with new systems that promise greater efficiencies, expanded services, or improved interoperability with other information systems. In many cases, the new system cannot readily integrate the data collected from the older system.The previously collected data becomes a legacy to the new system. In such cases, legacy data is simply “stored” for some arbitrary period of time in case someone actually needs to retrieve any of the legacy data.After a decade or so the hospital may find itself without any staff members who are capable of locating the storage site of the legacy data, or moving the data into a modern operating system, or interpreting the stored data, or retrieving appropriate data records, or producing a usable query output.MapReduceA method by which computationally intensive problems can be processed on multiple computers, in parallel. The method can be divided into a mapping step and a reducing step.In the mapping step, a master computer divides a problem into smaller problems that are distributed to other computers. In the reducing step, the master computer collects the output from the other computers. Although MapReduce is intended for Big Data resources and can hold petabytes of data, most Big Data problems do not require MapReduce.Missing data Most complex data sets have missing data values. Somewhere along the line data elements were not entered, records were lost, or some systemic error produced empty data fields. Big Data, being large, complex, and composed of data objects collected from diverse sources, is almost certain to have missing data.Various mathematical approaches to missing data have been developed; commonly involving assigning values on a statistical basis; so-called imputation methods. The underlying assumption for such methods is that missing data arise at random. When missing data arises non-randomly, there is no satisfactory statistical fix.The Big Data curator must track down the source of the errors and somehow rectify the situation. In either case, the issue of missing data introduces a potential bias and it is crucial to fully document the method by which missing data is handled. In the realm of clinical trials, only a minority of data analyses bothers to describe their chosen method for handling missing data.MutabilityMutability refers to the ability to alter the data held in a data object or to change the identity of a data object. Serious Big Data is not mutable. Data can be added, but data cannot be erased or altered. Big Data resources that are mutable cannot establish a sensible data identification system, and cannot support verification and validation activities.The legitimate ways in which we can record the changes that occur in unique data objects (e.g., humans) over time, without ever changing the key/value data attached to the unique object.For programmers, it is important to distinguish data mutability from object mutability, as it applies in Python and other object-oriented programming languages. Python has two immutable objects: strings and tuples.Intuitively, we would probably guess that the contents of a string object cannot be changed, and the contents of a tuple object cannot be changed. This is not the case. Immutability, for programmers, means that there are no methods available to the object by which the contents of the object can be altered.Specifically, a Python tuple object would have no methods it could call to change its own contents. However, a tuple may contain a list, and lists are mutable. For example, a list may have an append method that will add an item to the list object. You can change the contents of a list contained in a tuple object without violating the tuple’s immutability.Parallel computing Some computational tasks can be broken down and distributed to other computers, to be calculated “in parallel.” The method of parallel programming allows a collection of desktop computers to complete intensive calculations of the sort that would ordinarily require the aid of a super-computer.Parallel programming has been studied as a practical way to deal with the higher computational demands brought by Big Data. Although there are many important problems that require parallel computing, the vast majority of Big Data analyses can be easily accomplished with a single, off-the-shelf personal computer.Protocol A set of instructions, policies, or fully described procedures for accomplishing a service, operation, or task. Protocols are fundamental to Big Data. Data is generated and collected according to protocols. There are protocols for conducting experiments, and there are protocols for measuring the results.There are protocols for choosing the human subjects included in a clinical trial, and there are protocols for interacting with the human subjects during the course of the trial. All network communications are conducted via protocols; the Internet operates under a protocol (TCP-IP, Transmission Control Protocol-Internet Protocol).Query The term “query” usually refers to a request, sent to a database, for information (e.g., Web pages, documents, lines of text, images) that matches a provided word or phrase (i.e., the query term). More generally a query is a parameter or set of parameters that are submitted as input to a computer program that searches a data collection for items that match or bear some relationship to the query parameters.In the context of Big Data, the user may need to find classes of objects that have properties relevant to a particular area of interest. In this case, the query is basically introspective, and the output may yield metadata describing individual objects, classes of objects, or the relationships among objects that share particular properties.For example, “weight” may be a property, and this property may fall into the domain of several different classes of data objects. The user might want to know the names of the classes of objects that have the “weight” property and the numbers of object instances in each class.Eventually, the user might want to select several of these classes (e.g., including dogs and cats, but excluding microwave ovens) along with the data object instances whose weights fall within a specified range (e.g., 20–30 pound). This approach to querying could work with any data set that has been well specified with metadata, but it is particularly important when using Big Data resources.Raw data Raw data is the unprocessed, original data measurement, coming straight from the instrument to the database with no intervening interference or modification. In reality, scientists seldom, if ever, work with raw data.When an instrument registers the amount of fluorescence emitted by a hybridization spot on a gene array, or the concentration of sodium in the blood, or virtually any of the measurement that we receive as numeric quantities, the output is produced by an algorithm executed by the measurement instrument.Pre-processing of data is commonplace in the universe of Big Data, and data managers should not labor under the false impression that the data received is “raw,” simply because the data has not been modified by the person who submits the data.Results The term “results” is often confused with the term “conclusions.” Interchanging the two concepts is a source of confusion among data scientists. In the strictest sense, “results” consist of the full set of experimental data collected by measurements. In practice, “results” are provided as a small subset of data distilled from the raw, original data.In a typical journal article, selected data subsets are packaged as a chart or graph that emphasizes some point of interest. Hence, the term “results” may refer, erroneously, to subsets of the original data, or to visual graphics intended to summarize the original data. Conclusions are the inferences drawn from the results. Results are verified; conclusions are validated.Science, Of course, there are many different definitions of science, and inquisitive students should be encouraged to find a conceptualization of science that suits their own intellectual development. For me, science is all about finding general relationships among objects.In the so-called physical sciences the most important relationships are expressed as mathematical equations (e.g., the relationship between force, mass, and acceleration; the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance). In the so-called natural sciences, relationships are often expressed through classifications (e.g., the classification of living organisms).Scientific advancement is the discovery of new relationships or the discovery of a generalization that applies to objects hitherto confined within disparate scientific realms (e.g., evolutionary theory arising from observations of organisms and geologic strata). Engineering would be the area of science wherein scientific relationships are exploited to build new technology.Square Kilometer Array The Square Kilometer Array is designed to collect data from millions of connected radio telescopes and is expected to produce more than one exabyte (1 billion gigabytes) every day.
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