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FAQs
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What would China be like today if the Nationalists had won the Chinese Civil War?
Let me inject my little humble experience with the Nationalist military—no exactly answering your question, but may provide some insight to the Nationalist government’s downfall.The Nationalist government withdrew to Taiwan in 1949, telling its own people that it was a temporary tactical maneuver and that we would soon counter-attack and retake the homeland. I was brought up in such belief. In all honesty, that was the only belief around—or rather, allowed.In 1967, 18 years after the KMT-CCP civil war, like all my contemporaries at the time, I began my military service as a platoon leader in the Marine Corps right after college (sort of ROTC-like officer in the US). When I first reported to my company with much apprehension, I felt no welcome—or rather, I was made to feel like an outsider. Without saying a word, a master sergeant handed me my uniform and placed my civilian clothing in a bag. I noticed he never bothered to solute, as I was made extremely conscious that respecting rank was an utmost important way to keep the military discipline, regardless personal feelings toward the person who happens to out-rank you. I sort tried to understand how a fifty-some-year-old master sergeant would feel when he had to salute to a young kid thirty years his junior, but, again, I did not invent the rules.I was shown to my tiny officer quarter. The place was already occupied by another officer and he grudgingly cleared out the upper bunk bed for me to crawl in. I considered myself lucky: comparing it to the open double-deck sleeping arrangement during my boot-camp days, it is a private mansion.On the same evening, I saw my platoon the first time. An unhappy—very very unhappy indeed— old sergeant named Li who had acted as the substitute platoon leader rudely summoned the thirty-some skeptically looking young conscripts and reluctantly transferred his command to me. I knew even then from the looks of the young troopers that the old fellow Li would not give up his power without a fight. I kept my posture and introduced myself briefly to the troopers and told the sergeant to dismiss the squad and let the guys rest early. Soon after I turned my back I heard the old sergeant begin barking at the conscripts and kept rambling, shouting out a long tirade about discipline, honor, and duties, which I considered completely irrelevant. I was torn between stopping him from the nonsense volley for the sake of the troopers and keeping the protocol which gave him the prerogatives as a sergeant to bark on. I backed off from the direct confrontation with Li, not a pleasant first day in the service.No sooner did I report to duty than the company was given the order to march out with full gear, with the M2 for foot soldiers, a carbine for sergeants and the .45 caliber pistol for officers. I never shot a 45 pistol but it felt good, I had to admit. We were not told where to go, or what to do or what to expect. I overheard the soldiers mumbling that since no live ammunition was dispensed so that must be good, meaning at best just an exercise of some sort, unlike two years before when live ammunition was dispensed and with all communications with outside cut off did they all break out in tears, realizing something bad was going to happen. Fortunately, I was later told, the mission was scuttled as the first ships entering Xiamen Harbor was intercepted and the entire crew was captured.We marched for hours to get on a gigantic transport ship in ZhoYin. That was quite a sight to behold: hundred and hundred of us jammed on every single square inch on deck, and the loud growling landing ships (LTV) belched heavy diesel fumes rammed into the lower deck. Soon we set sail. It was a calm but queer night; overhead, the Milky Way easily fit into your hands as the transporter was kept intentionally in the pitch darkness. Soon its swaying motions started to its tolls on the conscripts: many began to vomit, and understandably, all toilets soon turned into hell.That was a sleepless night for the most of us, and as the shimmering dawn came we could slowly make out the silhouette of the coastline. Yes, the land! No more sea sickness! The alarm sound could not come a better time as the navy guys come on deck to collect and shove us exhausted marines to the LTVs below. But the sea wasn’t as kind and the surfs were punishing. With propeller-powered bomber roaring above and the iron “water ducklings” humming in all directions, you don’t need to be told that one misstep and you are doomed. Yes, it was like a war game, but somehow I reminded myself that we were all in uniform and if the war did come, we are the most sought-after targets.The LTV ride was proven too short; soon the reality hit home: what happens after we land—this can’t be just a Disneyland ride?No one ever briefed me on the maneuver, nor did anyone bother to inform me of the exercise plan, and here I wore the badge of the platoon leader and I had not even got a map! Could the old sergeant Li keep away the info from me? Before I could collect all my thoughts, we were shoved out of the landing craft by the navy guys. Suddenly, I found myself sinking into the wet sand with twenty-some pairs of eyes looking straight at me for further orders. In front of me was a steep hill covered with thorny bushes, above me was the glaring sun, at the corner of my eyes were a group of mean-looking inspecting colonels and majors dripping white foams at the mouths. I couldn’t hear what they were yelling but my instinct told me that something does not bode well and it would be a foolish attempt trying to carry out a civilized dialogue with these people. So I instantly barked out and took my troopers to run away from the mean-looking convoy, yes, all the way deep into the hills—where no one could get us.Once in a while, I have nightmares over this incident. Clearly, that was an absolutely unprofessional way of handling a military maneuver. I cannot imagine what if that were a real military exercise any the junior officer was not even given a minimum instruction, map, schedule, or destination of the mission and the point of rendezvous. I hardly knew any of these young conscripts in my platoon, let alone the constant usurper Li. They could just easily skewer me on the rack, hang me out to dry, or push accidentally send me down to the hillside?This was in 1967. I can only guess the situation had to be ten times worse then during the Chinese Civil War.Anyway, we were drifting from hill to hill, avoiding the inspecting convoy; occasionally we met other groups who were just at a loss as we were. Loss of sleep and hunger began to take a grip on us and thirst became unbearable thanks to the unrelenting sun. I told the troopers to recuperate in the shade, waiting for instructions over the radio. The old US-made radio, a leftover from the WWII era. cracked and squealed out sporadic firecracker sounds and decided to die suddenly. The communication soldier tried desperately to resuscitate the machine by cranking the handle incessantly, but to no avail. So radio dead on all fronts, none from the company, the battalion or the regiment. We were alone!I figure that at the time, 18 years after the Chinese Civil War, hardly any one in Taiwan had any experience with anything mechanical or electronic in nature, driving was a luxury, and electronic communications were nonexistent. I could only imagine what was like 18 years before then.Lunchtime has elapsed, still no instructions of any sort from anywhere. It was near 1;30 pm came the vociferated fiery furies from the the loudspeakers by the regiment commander who few had ever met; “You can come out now, you useless cowardly bunch. You can now get off the mountains and have your lunch. Remember, if this were a real war, you would be all be dead by now.” Thank you, commander, for the encouraging words, and thank you for the lunch because we really need it. Note: this was in 1967 during peace time; how could the the similar scenario turned out 18 years ago when supplies in dire deficiency, morale low, and corruption was rampant? Did many have to kill one another for food, and drink one another’s blood to quench the thirst?Despondent and injured, I collected myself and took my platoon down the mountain paths where we met many other equally dispirited groups. In the fleeting exchanges of silent glimpse we secured the minimal pride we each sought for: no, we are no coward, we are simply the victims of the circumstances. My platoon was not reprimanded for getting lost in the exercise; the likely reason may be every single platoon, every single company was lost in the landing chaos. Of course, lunch was not meant to reward us cowards and us the fainted-heart, the regiment commander kept up with his bombastic delivery: “ You think you deserve the meal? No, you’re wrong, no one owes you the meal. You left a shameful mark on the regiment’s proud record by acting like a bunch of imbeciles. To make sure you remember your ineptness, you will begin your forced march right after lunch. For those who think they deserve a regular afternoon nap, well, you are wrong. You will march on, and you will retrospect on what you had done while you are marching. “Our fearless commander’s remonstrance clearly felt on deafears: most reaction to it was —well, damn, not even a nap! The forced march did not go well indeed as the already-exhausted troopers struggled to carry the heavy M2 rifle, the light machine gun and bipod, or the 60-mm motor component and marched in the searing heat and the murderous humidity. The first to drop out of march was Sergeant Li, and Li and other old sergeants were picked up by the supply trucks and piled up like corpses. Finally, I had my entire platoon back as all the old sergeants were gone. But the worse just began to unfold: a typhoon started unleashing its might with lashing thunders and pouring rain. A machines gun carriers felt and vomited in convulsion. I stopped to check on him but was stopped by the MP with a deadpan look in his face that the march could not be interrupted by one fallen man. The downpour seemed to produce a bizarre and hypnotic effect on me: in trying to block off the bewailing drench and gnawing fatigue, the mind began to retrograde to some of the most esoteric questions I had considered in life: “should Lady Chatterley’s lover be blamed for her decadence”, ‘why did I get such a thrill reading a banned like this?”, ‘was Freud serious when he spoke of women’s penis envy”, ‘how the homo sapiens species came to be so much alike”, or “are love, procreation, and testosterone the same thing?” Somehow, they kept my mind occupied, and kept the seemingly surreal world away from my desperately needed sanity. Was that a self-defense mechanism in full swing? i would never know.That was a long march alright. After the drench came the sweltering sun. many troopers resorted to replenish their empty canteen with water from the rice paddies. I thought about the parasites in the water but was helpless in providing alternatives. Finally we settled into an elementary school before midnight. The school field was flooded but our order was the same: set up the tent for the night. Surely the troopers set up their tents in the soggy field but all chose to collapse on the hallway, and slept in every dry corner of the school. Surely I needn’t mention the fouls from the school’s overflown toilets.The school was still on summer break so we spent a week to recuperate. On the second evening I sensed some disturbance by an unusual gathering of men in a shadowed corner of the school. in the dim light I made my way to the front of the muted and intense crowd, where I saw a scene has haunted me up to this date— a gasping conscript with a contorted face in a push-up position, heaving himself desperately away from an upward pointing dagger planted directly below his abdomen, his vein swollen, his body dripping with bead-size perspiration, and all these under a gleeful eye of an old sergeant. Someone murmured out an expletive…,”Just because he refused to obey the old guy’s order?” Another echoed with an F-word…” I will kill the old SOB when the right time comes.” Others remained hushed—there might be ears among us?On the second evening, I was drawn to a small crowd that gathered around a small windowless hut that was used as a makeshift toilet. Apparently, the toilet was locked from outside. An old sergeant appeared and ordered the door be unlocked. Soon a barely wiggled body was dragged out, obviously poisoned by the foul fumes. His unconscious body was quickly carried away by his comrades and again came the hateful murmurs among the crowd. I was struggling with my conscience on just what I had to do without “rocking the boat’ of strict discipline. I conjured up a plan, and I knew it was risky. I had no friends in this god-forsaken place, and as a junior officer, I had no voice. Tormented constantly by my inaction, I decided to take a reasonable rick to change the intolerable cruelty of abuse in the name of discipline. Thanks to the Sherlock Holmes stories I read as a child, I painstakingly scribbled on the back of an ordinary white wrapping paper with my left hand: “Stop turning a blind eye on the illegal physical abuse on the conscripts or else….” Carefully I wiped off any possible finger prints and slipped the note under the doors of the regiment’s political commissar. The abuse did abate for a while and I did not know whether that was due to my doing.it is a common knowledge that the old sergeants were drafted against their wills when the KMT government fought against the CCP in 1940’s. Most of them are illiterate and consequently it was unlikely they could eke out a living outside of the military compound, especially none could utter a word of the local dialect, the Taiwanese. The company commander was one of the very few who could read and hence managed to rise to the rank of major. Understandably he resented the intrusion by the first college-graduated officer assigned to HIS company, me, guardedly, if not with disdain. The uneasiness manifested itself from time to time, and I guessed that it must be killing him to have to constrain himself in dealing with my first request for leave: “ What the FXXX, you need to take a leave for taking the GRE exam?”, “What the Fxxx is GRE? And why do I have to approve it? “,”So you have the approval paper deemed by the DOD , then what the Fxxx do you want me to sign this damn leave paper?” Of course, he did not know, the GRE request was only the beginning of my many many requests to come, then the TOEFL, then the DoE’ overseas-study qualification exam…. I felt sorry for the old man as his turf was trampled over by an young officer who aspires nothing less than seeing the world, abandoning his sacred duty of counterattacking the mainland. The sorry-old commander punctually disappeared for two days after the payday. I heard through the grapevine that he was a regular of a brothel in Kaohsiung City. That did not surprise me as most old sergeants would disappear in synchrony with the payday. Once the old commander was forced to stay put due to some unscheduled inspection exercise. The entire company fell into the victim of his unsettling wrath. He ranted incoherently for hours, blaming everyone for everything under the sun. In the midst of lunch, he rose suddenly, baring his teeth—everyone froze— dramatically he held up his rice bowl and trashed it on the ground. “What the Fxxx is this, you called this food?, “Get me the hands in the kitchen and have them report to me immediately….yes, at right this moment!” And he looked at me in a strange frown, I guess that meant either “life would be so good without you being in my sight” or “go take a hike, can’t you see I am still the reining king here?” I did not finish my meal either, not because of the food. I did not know what valuable service I offered to my country…or I did so by simply being a nuisance in a changing world?Among all the capriciousness came a handful of personal triumphs and a few bitter-sweet moments. Slowly and steadily, I won the trust of my young conscripts most who could neither read nor write. I became their only means to communicate with their loved ones back home: by writing some of the most intimate letters in life: “Dear A-lien, I can not come home this weekend because it takes five hours to travel one way, and the buses are often jammed. please go to my home and make sure my parents know I am okay here.”, ‘Dear Mom, this is your son Way-Ho. We now station in Che-Chen, a small town in Pin-Dong County, a hard-to-get-to place. So I don’t think I can get home until the Chinese New Year Break. Please take good care of yourself, and wait until I return to plow the field.” “Dear A-Mi, how are you. I think of you often. Did I tell you we have a new platoon leader? He is a nice man and he offers to write this letter for me. I am thinking to invite him over to our wedding the next year. Oh, did I tell you he is a college graduate? He also doubles up as our marching song teacher at the request of the political commissar from the headquarters. Also, because he was so good at many things, he began to teach us the Chiang Kai-Shek ‘s speeches as well, and he is very good at it, and he often makes us laugh.”, “Dear father, with great respect from your son, I am serving my military duty, and I follow the orders of my superiors as you always told me. Last time you said you had a backache, I hope you feel better now. do worry about the chicken flu. Just salt them first and sell them in the market. If you charge less, people will buy it no matter what. Oh, we won the military marching song contest last week, thanks to our new platoon leader who taught us how to beat our competitors; by singing as loud as possible, showing the spirit, never mind the tones, he said….”One quiet Sunday afternoon, I had an unexpected visitor: the old sergeant Li who tried to usurp my authority as the platoon leader. It was the first time he looked so respectful and subdued. I asked him to come into my tiny quarter and offered him the only chair in the room and some water. “Can I help you?” I asked of him. He began to blush and stammered, “I was wondering, Sir, if you can do me a big big favor?” I immediately sensed it must be something extraordinary but I held back my anxiousness less he should back away from talking. “You see, Sir, I left my home in Sun-Dong for twenty-some years and I have always worried about my families back home.” He paused and took a calibration on my reaction to decide whether he should continue his delivery. I knew exactly what he was about to say; back then, anyone suspected to have communicated with the mainland Chinese can be rounded up as a communist spy or sympathizer and can be punished by death. No small matter, this man is trusting his entire life on me. He went on and begged me to write a letter on his behave, telling his families that he is alive and well. “I heard that you are going to America in a few months. When you get there, would you please mail this letter to this address in China for me. Oh, I have managed to save up some money for this date. Please convert it to the US money and sent it to them? It’s not much, but that’s all I have.” His voice turned hoarse and his face buried under his weathered hands. He insisted I took his money and before he left he hesitated for a couple of seconds before he uttered the final words between us: “I wish to tell you how sorry I am when you first came. I don’t deserve to hope to see you again.”A few days before my discharge, I was summoned to the political commissar’s office in the regiment’s headquarters. “Lieutenant Yang, come in.” he was a lanky fellow in his late fifties, with a hawkish look and a easy disparaging smile. “ I have looked over your service record and found blemishes that can easily stop you from getting a passport for studying abroad, you know what I meant? ” I stood in attention and desperately stayed calm, knowing this man alone could derail my entire aspiration to see the world, especially the big world outside of this tiny island. “No, Sir, I thought I had helped to teach political courses and our regiment scores high on the tests.”. He smiled broadly and said, “Now stop beat around the bush; I know you are smarter than that, and I am not just talking about your lukewarm attitude toward slogan chanting during the morning roll calls either.” “Sir, I can explain….” He waived to shut me up and officiated his verdict,”Indeed, your contribution to elevating our regiment’s test score by two notches makes you a net contributor to the military, and I congratulate you for earning your honorary discharge. Just sign your name here and you will be a civilian in no time.”I was a bit startled by the need for enacting such episode, but I still signed in earnest, hoping I never have to see him ever again. But I was wrong; he took his time checking my signature and glared at me dispassionately, “Lieutenant Yang, you have a smart handwriting indeed.” before I collected my self in disbelief , he pulled out his drawer and handed me a piece of white wrapping paper, “ I think this paper should go back to its rightful owner.” It was his final words. And yes, that was the paper I wrote with my left hand. Yes, the ink of my fountain pen gave it away, which Sherlock Holmes never taught me. Still, the old man is cool.Why do I write this story, and is there any relevance to the question of what would happen if the nationalists won the civil war? My answer is; never mind the question. Let the past die! KILL IT if you have to. ” (copyright disclaimer—Star War)Many Many innocent Chinese died; many many families dispersed, many many lives were wasted during the Chinese civil conflicts. Do not glorify the overly fabricated history. Learn from the past we know and look ahead, never make the same mistakes again.
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How shall I prepare for IBPS PO 2016 interview?
Interview is the most random thing happening with you in the actual exam. Randomness comes on the date of the interview, randomness comes on the board of the interview, randomness comes on the time of the interview. You may be the first candidates of the after noon session or you may be the last canididate of the last session. Hence its became random. The most important thing here is “How to start and take a flow of your preparation for taking selecting in this exam.” I’ll guide you here step by step. Do as I say and believe me if you do this correctly you’ll definitely got success in this examination which is seems to be wild goose chase and most of the aspirants were afraid of facing the interview memebers. So let us take a start.First of all you need to know about yourself. Here yourself means know about your likes and dislikes/know about your strong and week points regarding your graduation subjects/know about your habits- what do you want to read in your free times, what is the thing which excites you the most. These are thing in which me or anybody can’t help you. You have to required all this questions answer in your own language. Hence first try to know more about yourself in a well mannered. Don’t cheat yourself here. If there are an interviewed person who is romantic and ask you “What are the things you want to be in your life partner/boyfriend.” then tell them about it honestly. Here I don’t write girlfriend because this question they never ask to any boy, this question only they ask to girls. This question was ask in IBPS clerk 2015 to one of my friends. She is beautiful hence one of the member asked her. If you are goodlooking then must be answered her without shocking. So, that is the thing. you have to relate directly relate to the board persons mind. This is the first thing you should do know more about yourself.The Second thing you have to do is “Try to be honest”. If you done something wrong in life and they ask you about that give them answer that yes you have. Everyone not going to be Mother teressa. They don’t want Mahatma gandhi as a Assistant manager. We all are human and human being required their.The Third thing you have to do is “Try to collect well mannered answer regarding Banking/financial awareness.” Please well arranged yourself for present norm of banks. What is FDI. what is FII, Give me a breif history about the banking in India, How its arranged, what do you do for the people who is fighting with Demonetisation if you are a RBI governor, Who is Urgit Patel, how many governor were there, what is GDP, what is GNP, what is CLR and SLR, How many governor are there, what is the role of governor in bank, what are their responsibilities, What is the difference between American and Indian banks, What is paytm, how it works, Is go to cashless scheme of PM is good, Is everyone was able to connect with cashless, Is rural people are well aranged themselves for the cashless system, How the concept of cashless system arise, what is Demonetisation, Is this good then why, Is this bad then why, What is black money, Do you have black money, If you have black money then how do you tackle with this problem in that time, How black money afftect the whole country, What is Mat, What is SEBI, How Indian banks compete with themselves, Public sector and private banks -what are it and how many it.” These are the thing you should prepare if you want to make interview better than someone else. The best thing is all the things I mentioned here is easy to remember and easy to read. How, I would tell you here.You have “Lucent” right. Economic section of this book is awsome. Learn economic basics from there and make a note on that. Write in that note book all the essentials imfromation which you think is best regading your interview. This will not take your more than one day. After that you should start using internet in the best way. Search all th topics I would mention here and try to understand it well. It will help you a lot. dont buy more books for your interview preparation after reading economic section think your self about the best topic which is essentials and googling things from it. try to read as much as you can. That all you would do for the preparation of your interview. Further I’ll discussed the thing which is important for you for your representation.The fourth thing I’ll discuss here is representation. How you represent yourself in front of the examiner, What is the best dress for wearing on the day of your interview, How you enter in the interview room, how would you sit there, how would you answered the question of examiner, how would you stand up after the exams and how you go out from the room. All thing we’ll discuss here and that is important regarding your interviews.Presentation are the thing which is needed in your interview for your selection. The first thing here is your dress because alll the thing are matters after your dress. First they go through your dress and make something in their mind regarding you. Hence try to wear that dress which suits to you. Girls who are between 21–25 age group, if you slim then Suit is the best option there for your presentation. A simple suit on which not much work are done is best choice for you. Avoid saree as much as you can but if you are healthy then dont wear suit replace it from saree. All 25+ age froup girls must wore sarees because this is the best opiton for you. Except this the thing matter here more is the dress in which you looking preety. Don’t wear plain or very simple not worthconsidering saree because they dont want Mother Teressa as an Assistant manager, she was very good in social reformer. For Saree from choosing to wearing take your mom help for this. All the boys go for the interview must use Simple black pant and white shirts. But not wear simple black pant use Royal black color pants and Shirts are different whites. Don’t use normal black and white because they dont want school students. At least try to look like a banker. This is important in this time. Use a normal black sweater on white shirts. Prefer half sweater most. Try to avoid half sweater. You can also use cream colors sweater but use onle simple among that. Thats all are the dressing thing important for exams.Other important thing here is your preformance. In performance I want to add here the normal quesiton which they ask to many candidates because theses are the relative quesiton and answer of all of that not similar to the interview. Like If you done something wrong in your life and they ask about that then tell them yes you have. Dont try to misguided them. We all are human and human being are required in this examination not any superhuman or other great superheroes. We all do mistakes hence tell them about the thing which is wrong and you did it also tell them about your appoligies about that particular thing or person. Make every answer which is create less questions. Don try to add more thing in your quesiton. There are also some quesition which you need to prepare for the interview like “Tell me about yourself/ tell me about your habits/ which books you read in your free time/ what are the last book you read ( here if you not read any book then tell them honestly that you didnt read any book which is not related to your exams because of x,y and z reasons). If they ask you something and you know the answer of that particular quesiton well then dont try to answered them untill the question was end. When the interview was end then stand up comfortably and tell them thankyou and give back to the door from facing them dont view them your back. Go out from facing them with greeting all of them and then slowly slowly outside. This is the last thing you do which shows them how much you respect them because that was the movie ending time and in the last your merit will be decided from there.That is the all thing you should do regarding your preparation. I’l tell you here everything just go from that. At last I want to say avoid much books and use internet, search all the thing you didn’t know. If there are still some quesitons which is in your mind ask then write a message and drop it on my fb inbox. Whenever I’ve time I’ll answered. But I think I shared here everthing and this will help you a lot.
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What makes an electric guitar pickup produce sound?
A article from hank Wallace gives a pretty thorough explanation.There’s a lot of trade talk about pickups. This one’s “hot”, that one’s “mellow”, the other one’s “smooth”. But how do pickups work? What makes them go?At the core of magnetic pickups are magnets, of course. You have seen pickups on display in a music shop where you can see the thin copper wire coiled around the pickup body. So we have magnets and a coil of wire as the main components of a pickup.The basic science behind pickup function is Faraday’s Law of Induction. It states that a changing magnetic field causes an electric field to be set up in a nearby wire, causing a current to flow if the wire is part of a closed circuit (a loop of wire for example).Perhaps in science class you connected a meter across a coil of wire, then swiped a magnet near the coil. The changing magnetic field caused the meter’s needle to jump. Energy of motion (your moving hand) was converted to electricity through the motion of the magnetic field. That’s how electric generators work.The picture shows a very simplified view of the pickup end of a guitar, including the pickup, bridge piece and string. The red lines represent the magnetic field of the pickup (a single coil pickup for discussion). The magnetic pole pieces you see on your pickups actually extend all the way through the pickup’s wire coil.Since Faraday’s Law tells us we need a changing magnetic field to make an electric current, how does the magnetic field from the static permanent magnets change? That’s where the string comes into play.See, the string is made of nickel and steel (iron+carbon), materials that are ferromagnetic. That is, a magnet attracts guitar strings. When this ferromagnetic metal vibrates in the magnetic field of the pickup, that disturbs the red field lines which also cross through the coil (not shown). That changing magnetic field makes a current flow that tracks the vibration of the string, and we have a working pickup!Vibrating StringsI’ll get back to pickups in a moment, but let’s look at the physics of a vibrating string, which is very interesting and easy to grasp. Your understanding of how your instrument works will make this crystal clear. Understanding a vibrating string helps us understand how the pickups sound.The picture shows three situations. The top diagram shows the first harmonic of the string’s pitch, called the fundamental. This is the note you hear when you pluck an open string. (The extents of the oval indicate the movement of the string as it vibrates.)The diagram labeled “2nd” is the second harmonic. The string can only vibrate at whole number multiples of the fundamental pitch (1x, 2x, 3x, etc.). You cannot see it very well in a vibrating guitar string, but there are fat and skinny spots. The point of minimum movement is called a node. The point of maximum movement is called an antinode. The number of the harmonic is found by counting the number of antinodes on the string.The diagram labeled “3rd” shows the third harmonic, which has three antinodes.Important: The string does not move at a node. That means, once you get the string vibrating at the second harmonic, you can touch the string exactly at the node and it keeps on making sound!Now you can easily create and listen to these harmonics on your instrument. Plucking any open string voices the fundamental. Put your finger lightly on the string at the twelfth fret and pluck the string. The higher pitch is the second harmonic. The node is right over the twelfth fret. Pluck the harmonic and touch the pick to the string at the twelfth fret. Notice that the tone keeps ringing. The node point on the string is not moving!The third harmonic is had by plucking the string and muting it at the seventh fret. This is another node.Back to PickupsLet’s see how the nodes interact with the pickup’s operation. The next picture shows the same three harmonics with the pickup positioned midway along the string (not realistic, but good for illustration).Remember that the pickup only detects string vibration when the string is vibrating near the pickup. (OK, duh.) In the top and bottom diagrams, the fundamental and third harmonic, the string is moving a lot in the pickup’s vicinity. But for the second harmonic, the pickup is situated over a node, meaning that the pickup does not hear the second harmonic. How interesting!Now this diagram is vastly oversimplified. In real life, when you pluck a string it vibrates in the fundamental, second harmonic, third, fourth, etc., all a the same time. But the pickup ignores the tones that have a node where the pickup is positioned. This has the effect of filtering the tones on the string.Look at the diagrams and you can see (with a little thought) what happens to higher harmonics. For example, every odd harmonic will have an antinode near the pickup and will make it to the guitar amp. But every even harmonic will have a node near the pickup and will be silent. So this pickup positioning filters out all the even harmonics.When there are two pickups being used, the situation gets even more interesting. Pickups are usually mounted close to the bridge, so each one is seeing the fundamental in some measure. That is, the string is moving either toward or away from all the pickups at the same time. This causes the signals coming out of the pickups to add together.For the seventh harmonic, we see that the pickup on the right is at an antinode, getting a lot of signal, and the pickup on the left is at a node, putting out little signal. This harmonic comes across strong.For the tenth harmonic, we see that the pickup on the right has the string moving away from it when the other pickup has the string moving toward it. This causes the signals from the pickups to cancel, so this harmonic is reduced in volume.You can see that the distance between the pickups affects which harmonics will add and which will cancel. That’s why pickup positioning is so important if you are trying to mimic the sound of a vintage instrument.As stated, a string produces loads of harmonics when it is plucked, so this two pickup system does a lot of filtering. This is the source of the Stratocaster®sound had with the 5-way switching (more detail below). The filtering occurs in humbuckers, too, but at a much higher frequency because the two pickup coils are much closer together. That’s partly why humbuckers have a more mellow sound with less high end than single coil pickups — the higher harmonics are canceling.Adding another layer of complexity, there are actually two of these filters on each string, one determined by the bridge-pickup distance, and the other determined by the distance from the pickup to the fretted position on the string, which of course moves constantly as you play. For every string, at every fret, there is a pair of filters that determine with the pickups how the string sounds.The picture shows a string vibrating over a pickup, viewed end-on. It’s even more interesting because when you pluck a string, the string does not vibrate in a plane (red line), but in any number of planes, or circles (green), or ellipses (white). In fact, the ellipses can even rotate around their center as the note decays. This means that the harmonics you hear also depends on how you pick the string, but you knew that already.When we add to that all the variations on pickup construction (magnet type, magnet position, magnet strength, wire size, number of turns on the coil, pickup position in the guitar), it’s apparent that billions of sounds are available.How do Humbuckers Work?A common question from guitarists is, “How do humbucking pickups work?” The design of humbuckers is a clever innovation from decades past. The humbucking pickup passes the vibration of the guitar string while attenuating the hum and noise present all around the guitar, from power lines and other electronic devices. How is this possible?The humbucker uses two coils of wire to pick up the guitar strings’ vibrations. However, the magnets are installed in the two coils in opposite polarity, such that they produce signals that are effectively out of phase in each coil. If the coils are connected correctly, signals from the strings add together from the two single coils. But electromagnetic fields hitting both single coils from external sources, like lighting fixtures, cancel out because of the way the coils are interconnected. Thus, the good guitar signal is double the strength that would be had with a single coil alone, and the interference is cancelled to a great extent in the process.What’s the Secret Behind 5-Way Pickup Switching?I remember when I got my first Stratocaster®. A friend told me how some guitarists I admired set the 3-way switch between the first two or last two positions to get what they called an “out of phase” sound. I tried it and fell in love with that sound. I even made one T-shirt that said “I Found the Sound”, using the Fender “F” (don’t tell the lawyers, but I cut the “F” out of some iron-on material myself — I must have been 16). None of my buddies at school understood, and I have long outgrown that shirt, but the sound remains.What produces that sound? The 3-way switch had what engineers called “make before break” operation. That means that when switching between two pickups, it connected them both together for an instant before switching to only the next pickup. This avoided an annoying break in the sound while switching pickups. I suppose that Leo Fender did not want to be receiving tech support calls on those new guitars, especially since the Asian tech support call center had not yet been invented! (Thank you Michael Dell. NOT!)When two pickups are connected together, as discussed above, there is a filtering of the signals that is a function of the distance between the pickups. The 3-way switch on a Les Paul guitar has much the same effect in the middle position, but the sound is different because it is combining two humbuckers which are spaced farther apart. Note that the pickups are NOT connected out of phase. If you rewire a guitar for that operation you will find the bass response greatly diminished. It’s just the physics of filtering that creates that signature sound.We have 5-way switches today and they make getting that sound easy. The switch manufacturers simply added a couple more detents to the original 3-way switches. The wiring is the same!What about Magnet Type?There are many types of magnets in common use. Ceramic magnets are inexpensive, but brittle and not too strong magnetically. These are commonly used in crafts and as refrigerator door magnets.Other common types are:aluminum nickel cobalt [AlNiCo] (inexpensive)samarium cobalt (strong but expensive)neodymium boron iron (strongest and expensive)There are some trade offs involved in pickup design. First, a stronger magnet means that fewer turns of wire are needed for a certain audio output. That means that the pickup can be smaller. If the pickup is made in some standard size, a stronger magnet produces more audio output.However, the stronger magnet types are much more expensive. That’s why most pickups use less expensive AlNiCo magnets.Also, stronger magnets are not the cure-all for electric guitar. Since the guitar strings are ferromagnetic and are attracted to the magnets, the pickups affect the vibrations of the strings, which is bad since the pickups are only there to sense the vibrations, not change them. To get a feel for this, adjust a guitar’s neck pickup until the pole pieces are very near (It might seem smart to choose the strongest magnet, neodymium boron iron, and make a pickup so hot that you could plug a 100 watt light bulb into your Les Paul. But that magnet will either affect the strings adversely, or you’d have to make it so small that its magnetic field would be too concentrated. Weaker magnets necessarily must be larger in diameter to be usable, and they produce a broader field that is tolerant of the strings’ movement while being plucked and bent.
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