Request Electronic signature PDF Computer

The answer is similar to the Why is Dropbox more popular than other programs with similar functionality? [ https://www.quora.com/Why-is-Dropbox-more-popular-than-other-programs-with-similar-functionality ] question[1], the crux of which is that normal people don't want a Comprehensive Software Solution Package. They want a tool that does something for them. Dropbox: There is a folder and you put files in it. It syncs. HelloFax: You upload a file and sign it. It sends. Let's say you are a harried entrepreneur who is incorporating his/her company, and finds that s/he needs to sign and fax back the final documents. You just want to get this done as fast as possible and you don't want to drive to Kinkos, so you start looking online for a solution. Try going to EchoSign's webpage: http://www.echosign.com/ Now look at HelloFax: https://www.hellofax.com/ Which one looks more intimidating? Do you want an electronic signature solution or do you just want to sign it and be done with this "fax" problem? When someone asks me to fax something back, I don't think "Ah! This situation calls for an electronic signature! A web application that facilitates electronic signatures would be just the ticket!" Instead, I think, "WTF you neanderthal, why do you still have a fax machine?" I just want to get my signature onto that document, which I already have on my computer, and send it off to them. Most people requesting a "fax" will take a PDF via email, which HelloFax can send, or if they really are neanderthals, they will have an actual fax number, and HelloFax can send it there too. That's all I know and understand, and I need a simple service that transparently does this. HelloFax does it; I have no idea if EchoSign can even send something to a fax number or, from their website, exactly what they do[2]. [1] Fun tip: click on the "more" link showing the "votes by" for Michael Wolfe's answer on that page. [2] Edited: Antone Johnson's answer does a good job explaining what EchoSign is all about.

What is Digital Signature?A digital signature is basically a way to ensure that an electronic document (e-mail, spreadsheet, text file, etc.) is authentic. Authentic means that you know who created the document and you know that it has not been altered in any way since that person created it.Digital signatures rely on certain types of encryption to ensure authentication. Encryption is the process of taking all the data that one computer is sending to another and encoding it into a form that only the other computer will be able to decode. Authentication is the process of verifying that infor...

What is it you actually believe?So I did some reading.  I didn't manage all of it, it was exhausting just reading the stuff I did.  There are some interesting conclusions.Despite your continued appeals for me to read your prior work, the information I was after was remarkably scarce.Assuming you are not defined as a person by the absence of something, I simply asked ''what is it you DO believe in?''Well, here Lack of belief in something does not demand an alternative belief by Barry Hampe on Basic Atheism you say "yes, of course my personal life is full of opinions and beliefs. They just have not much to do with gods and religions.."....but go no further.  That's as close as we come.  oooooook.Here is close to what I was after Barry Hampe's answer to Can anyone offer what they would consider the best '10 Commandments for Atheists'?Ah! good, let's see what your belief system is."One of the advantages of being atheist is that there is no dogma, therefore there can be no commandments."Hmm.. ok.This is an interesting question Username's answer to What do atheists hope to gain by discussing their lack of religious belief on internet forums?Not your answer Barry, but an endorsement by 'upvote'."To put this as clearly as I can for the theists out there: Atheism is not an alternative to Theism"ok great! got it.  But what do you believe Barry?  What guides your actions or motivates you to get out of bed? Your entire purpose for being surely isn't to argue the absence of something?  Day to day, what is it that is most important to you?This is the closest I got Barry Hampe's answer to If there is no God or gods, then what is there?"Life.The moment.Love and loved ones.Accomplishment.Friendship and friends.The fascinating journey from birth to death.Self-confidence.A whole world of ideas.Doing what is right because it is right.And so much more . . ."Well, that is a great answer.  Honestly.  It gets close to what I was asking for.  But look at my answer here, made independently. Gavin Marshall's answer to What is your religion and what are some religious experiences you had?I'm not saying you are actually a theist, you are not.  I am not saying I am secretly a humanist or atheist.  I'm not.I'm claiming that the human experience is incredibly rich and deep and meaningful.  It is awesome and incredibly painful.  Religion and dogma don't even close close to doing it justice.  Having an IPA with my best friend from high school blows any church experience I have had clean out of the water. It satisfies the deep spiritual longing in all of us for connection, just like the things on your list.You will not be intellectually satisfied by Christians on Quora, and you know this very well.  What you will get is validation.  Validation that you are smarter and sharper than most and that feels good.  After 1500 answers concerning a negative though, I would ask, is it really working?  Like an alcoholic you keeps coming back for 'one more'.  Jesus knew this only to well and so said ''whoever drinks the water I give willneverbethirsty"THAT is the heart of the message. You do not step in or out of the circle depending on what you believe or think.  You do not choose, then join a club and then help with the recruitment process yourself.  These are smokescreens.You recognise what it means to be fully human.  You keep adding to your list and one day you say "thank you", but you don't know why.''For he makes his sun rise on the evil and on the good, and sends rain on the just and on the unjust." Matt 5:45Everyone.

Mycelium Customer service number 1–800–298–9018 Mycelium Customer support number project by Megion Research & Development GmbH makes a number of products including the Mycelium Bitcoin Wallet, Entropy, Bitcoincard, Mycelium Gear (a payment gateway), ATMs, Local Trader, and Tabtrader. It is located in Vienna, Austria.The Mycelium Bitcoin Wallet is available for Android and for iOS. The source is available for review on GitHub. It has been awarded the prestigious "Best Mobile App" award by Bitcoin Block Explorer - Blockchain in 2014.[1]It is available in 12 languages, translated by volunteersBitcoin Wallet Features100% control over your private keys, they never leave your device unless you export themNo block chain download, install and run in secondsUltra fast connection to the Bitcoin network through our super nodes located in different data centersWatch-only addresses & private key import for secure cold-storage integrationEncrypted PDF backup and restore of single key accountsSend and receive by specifying an amount in Fiat and switch between fiat and BTC while entering the amountAddress book for commonly used addressesTransaction history with full transaction detailsImport private keys using SIPA, mini private key format (Casascius private keys) or xPriv from QR-codes or clipboardExport private keys as QR-codes, on clipboard, or as encrypted PDFsSecure your wallet with a PINCompatible with other bitcoin services through bitcoin: uri handlingCompatible with Orbot (socks setting) so you may connect via Tor even without rootingSupport for BIP38 KeysView your balance in 164 fiat currenciesIntegrated QR-code scannerFind other people to trade Bitcoins with the integrated Local TraderDirectly spend from paper wallets (single key, xPriv or master seed)Trezor enabled - directly spend from trezor-secured accounts.Mycelium Entropy compatible Shamir-Secret-Shared 2-out-of-3 keys spendingCompatible with other bitcoin services through bitcoin: uri handlingShare your bitcoin address using NFC, Twitter, Facebook, email and more.BIP70 payment request compatibleIntegration with service Cashila to send money via SEPA[3]Support for BitID AuthenticationDeterministic signatures for Bitcoin transactions (RFC6979)Local TraderMycelium Local Trader is a decentralized in-person exchange that is built right into the Mycelium bitcoin wallet. Because the coins are stored locally in your wallet, the Local Trader exchange never needs to hold any of your bitcoins or fiat. Local Trader servers only help arrange the trade between buyers and sellers, manage the transaction, and calculate reputation ratings based on the trades.BitcoincardBitcoincard is a stand-alone device that acts as an electronic wallet. It can be used to secure the wallet in a safe place (outside the computer, making it inaccessible to hackers). The goal is to create an infrastructure-independent, self-powered, ad-hoc network that could dynamically form wherever a sufficient number of nodes came together to support it. A prototype was presented in Q1 2015.[4]Mycelium EntropyMycelium Entropy is a small USB device that uses hardware based entropy to generate directly printable Bitcoin paper wallets, without the need for a PC. The project was successfully funded on Indiegogo[5].Mycelium GearMycelium Gear is designed to allow you to receive BTC from customers directly into your wallet controlled by you only. Mycelium Gear eliminates the notion of payouts - you get your BTC instantly. It's easy to integrate with your online store or website, with no special skills required. Optionally you can convert your BTC to fiat using the Cashila service.

Yes. There are quite a few invoices generating software available online that can be used for generating invoice for vendors, customers and clients. SpiderG app is one such free app to download invoice generating software that is meant for small businesses who require finance and accounting assistance. Some of the key features include raising invoices for receivables and payments, reconciliation of statements, follow-up for payments and reminders for default payments.For individual businesses who have had to rely on manual process, SpiderG provides for hassle-free and quick accounting solutions that enables you to save costs and reduce your business overheads.Visit us at : SpiderGGoogle Play Store: https://play.google.com/store/ap...

I will have to make this answer quick as time is short at the moment, and then add the work I've originally put into this question previously.I'll first start with who I am for relevance.  I am a Philosophical Theist.  In other words, I am not part of a particular religion, yet I believe in the existence of what can be defined as 'god'.For the purpose of this question, I will defined god as 'platonic information processing cosmic consciousness'.My reason for believing in the existence of such a being resides in modern scientific experimental data - specifically in the field of Quantum Physics.I've put together an essay (admittedly incomplete) that outlines my findings over the last few years of research.  I've put it in argument format to help organize the essay and also give the reader an opportunity to falsify any of the points/break down their logic.Here is said essay/argument for the existence of 'god':What I want to demonstrate in my argument is this:1.) Local Realism is false and Quantum Mechanics has demonstrated this.2.) Quantum Mechanics (weirdness) applies to everything.3.) There are ways in which you can attempt to falsify this via showing Bells Inequality has not been violated.4.) The universe is likely a hologram or virtual simulation and we can test this.5.) The information processing the hologram is coming from a mind - rather than a highly advanced computer.“Quantum experiments hint at a worldview that has not yet been grasped.  The existence of something beyond what we usually consider physics – beyond what we usually consider the “physical world”.- The Quantum Enigma: Physics Encounters Consciousness------> Local Realism is false and Quantum Mechanics has demonstrated this. <------Quantum mechanics began it's tests with particles (i.e. electrons, protons, etc.)The particles (or matter) behaved like waves of probability when not being measured, and like balls of matter while being measured.(http://physics.mq.edu.au/~jcress...)(Young's Double Slit Experiment)(Page on mit.edu)This implied either that the detectors were screwing up the results, or that matter is not really as stable as we originally thought it was.The results of experiments seemed to show that matter is dependent on observation, or 'measurement', to exist in any defined location.We also found that two particles connected by Entanglement can somehow communicate with each other instantaneously at any distance in space.  This phenomena was called "spooky action at a distance" by Albert Einstein.Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen (Later known as the EPR Paradox) came together to find a 'local hidden variable'.  This hidden variable is something that would connect the particles somehow to show that reality wasn't as "spooky" or strange as the experiments were implying.(http://www.drchinese.com/David/E...)Other experiments were devised to remove the problem of the detectors in order to show that it wasn't the detectors causing the problem.The Delayed Choice Quantum Erasure proposed by Scully and Dr ̈uhl in 1982 (http://arxiv.org-ph/9903047.pdf) (Page on drexel.edu), was the experiment that drove us further down the rabbit hole.The experiment succeeded in showing that the detectors played no role in the interference and clump patterns shown by the particles.However, local realism has been violated:http://phys.org/news/2010-11-phy...Violation of local realism with freedom of choiceExperimental Test of Local Hidden-Variable Theories------> Quantum Mechanics (weirdness) applies to everything. <------The data has been done for large enough objects to see with the naked eye.  As the experiments use larger and larger subjects, physicists no longer doubt the results will be the same.Time moves along less like an analog clock and more like a digital clock with individual, computable states.  Each state containing a specific amount of informationAs the experiment is scaled up in size, at some point quantum behavior (interference) should give way to classical behavior (no interference). But how big can the particles be before that happens?Quantum Mechanics shows that not only particles are defined by interference, but much larger objects as well.  The results repeat no matter how large the object being used in the experiments.Quantum Interference is shown in large organic molecules -http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/...Imaging of the experiment, as well as the equipment used:http://www.nature.com/articles/n...------> There are ways in which you can attempt to falsify this via showing Bells Inequality has not been violated.------If you can show that Bell's Inequality has not been violated, you will win a Nobel Prize:The Quantum Randi Challenge: [1207.5294] Quantum Randi ChallengeBell’s Inequality:http://www.nature.com/nature/jou...http://www.nature.com/nature/jou...Leggits Inequality:[1304.5133] Leggett-Garg Inequalities------> The universe is possibly a hologram or virtual simulation and we can test this. <------Physicists such as Yoshifumi Hyakutake and colleagues of Ibaraki University in Japan have previously provided convincing evidence for the idea of holographic universes:Page on arxiv.org"In this article we provide the first quantitative evidence for the gauge/gravity duality at the level of quantum gravity. We perform Monte Carlo simulation of the dual gauge theory in the parameter regime that corresponds to a quantum black hole. Our results agree precisely with a prediction for an evaporating black hole including quantum gravity corrections. Thus we find that the dual gauge theory indeed provides a complete description of the quantum nature of the evaporating black hole."The evidence provided by the  Physicists at Ibaraki University of Japan show that the information that is projected into a black hole by information at the edge or the "event horizon", actually occurs at a cosmic scale.http://arxiv.org/pdf/1311.7526v3...- Yoshifumi HyakutakeIs this concept testable?Absolutely.  The concept is currently being experimentally tested at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory.http://www.fnal.gov/pub/presspas...I've sent an email to FNAL with a request for the results of the experiment.  The data is expected to be reviewed this year.The experiment is searching for "holographic noise" at the fundamental level.“If we find a noise we can’t get rid of, we might be detecting something fundamental about nature – a noise that is intrinsic to space-time,” - Fermilab physicist Aaron ChouThe noise is found by using two separate interferometers situated on top of one other. Each interferometer sends a one-kilowatt laser beam (the equivalent of 200,000 laser pointers) at a beam splitter. Then, once the light beams are split, they travel down two perpendicular 40 metre arms. Next, the light is reflected off a mirror back to the beam splitter, where the two beams finally recombine. However, during this journey, even the tiniest vibrations can interfere with the light's frequency, causing fluctuations in the brightness of light.The analysis of the light fluctuations is critical to the results of the experiment. It enables them to discover whether space itself is vibrating.These vibrations will be the "holographic noise".Other experiments are being done by a group of Physicists at the University of Washington looking for "signatures" that would indicate our universe is graph-like, much like you would use in a 3-dimensional world in a virtual system.(http://arxiv.org/pdf/1210.1847.pdf)And here's the laymen presentation of the PDF:(Constraints On Our Universe As A Numerical Simulation)------> The information processing the hologram is coming from a mind - rather than a highly advanced computer. <------If the cosmos is a hologram, where is the information coming from?We know that simulations of virtual realities can be processed via computers.  However, in order to build a computer to process every qubit of our universe, one would need to create a computer larger than the universe itself.  It's not practical and largely unnecessary to postulate.However we do know that our brains can process information much more smoothly and compactly into platonic information.The above science has shown, however, that the brain is also a part of the hologram.  Therefore, the matter that makes the brain is also observer dependent.  That means that the mind is fundamental and can be a separate entity. (http://www.newscientist.com/arti...)(Page on science.uu.nl)If this is true, then our universe can more simply be explained by inferring a mind processing the universe through platonic information processing.This mind would be a cosmic mind that envelopes all of space-time in our four dimensions."What I mean by 'consciousness' is, consciousness is the one thing that cannot be an illusion."- Sam Harris---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Edit: If you have any questions on the material (and I do mean any), just ask and I am happy to elaborate.Also, if I made a mistake in my information or any typos, please don't hesitate to make me aware of them.

There is no one property management system that is ideal for every use case. It depends on who you are and what you are looking for in the system.For residential property managers:If you are a professional property manager and have full service clients, then I have found the best softwares are Yardi and Appfolio. Yardi is a bit more of a “legacy” system — robust but not as fresh as Appfolio, promoting a great UI/UX (user interface and user experience). If you are a property manager and do not use software, then IMO - you are failing at your business. Software will reduce your overhead costs and help mitigate risks of forgetting lease renewals, late fees, etc.. The cost and time related to the setup can be gruesome, but it is well worth it in the end. You’ll be able to take on more clients and provide them with a much better experience.For residential property owners:The majority of owners across the US (80%) self manage their properties. Most of them do not use software, because it is a relatively new concept for them. From a systems perspective, it will depend on what you are looking to accomplish with your real estate goals.Here is an article that all owners should read to understand what kind of management system they want (passive or involved) and what type of solutions cater to their needs.

Electronic voting in IndiaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to navigation Jump to searchThis article is about the voting machines used in India. For general information on EVMs, see Electronic voting.VVPAT used with Indian electronic voting machines in Indian ElectionsControl unit in EVMElectionic Voting Machine India ballot UnitElectronic Voting is the standard means of conducting elections using Electronic Voting Machines, sometimes called "EVMs" in India.[1][2]The use of EVMs and electronic voting was developed and tested by the state-owned Electronics Corporation of India and Bharat Electronics in the 1990s. They were introduced in Indian elections between 1998 and 2001, in a phased manner. The electronic voting machines have been used in all general and state assembly elections of India since 2004.[3][2][4]Prior to the introduction of electronic voting, India used paper ballots and manual counting. The paper ballots method was widely criticized because of fraudulent voting, booth capturing where party loyalists captured booths and stuffed them with pre-filled fake ballots. The printed paper ballots were also more expensive, requiring substantial post-voting resources to count hundreds of millions of individual ballots.[2][1]Embedded EVM features such as "electronically limiting the rate of casting votes to five per minute",[1]a security "lock-close" feature, an electronic database of "voting signatures and thumb impressions" to confirm the identity of the voter, conducting elections in phases over several weeks while deploying extensive security personnel at each booth[1]have helped reduce electoral fraud and abuse, eliminate booth capturing and create more competitive and fairer elections.[5][2]Indian EVMs are stand-alone machines built with once write, read-only memory.[6]The EVMs are produced with secure manufacturing practices, and by design, are self-contained, battery-powered and lack any networking capability. They do not have any wireless or wired internet components and interface.[7]The M3 version of the EVMs includes the VVPAT system.[6]In recent elections, various opposition parties have alleged faulty EVMs after they failed to defeat the incumbent.[8][9]After rulings of Delhi High Court, the Supreme Court of India in 2011 directed the Election Commission to include a paper trail as well to help confirm the reliable operation of EVMs.[9][10]The Election Commission developed EVMs with voter-verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) system between 2012 and 2013. The system was tried on a pilot basis in the 2014 Indian general election.[11][12]Voter-verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) and EVMs are now used in every assembly and general election in India.[13][14]On 9 April 2019, Supreme Court of India ordered the Election Commission of India to use VVPAT paper trail system in every assembly constituency and verify these before signNowing the final results. The Election Commission of India has acted under this order and deployed VVPAT verification for 20,625 EVMs in the 2019 Indian general election.[15][16][17]The Election Commission of India states that their machines, system checks, safeguard procedures and election protocols are "fully tamper proof". A team led by Vemuri Hari Prasad of NetIndia Private Limited has shown that if criminals get physical possession of the EVMs before the voting, they can change the hardware inside and thus manipulate the results.[18]The Prasad team recommended a VVPAT paper trail system for verification.[18]The Election Commission states that along with VVPAT method, immediately prior to the election day, a sample number of votes for each political party nominee is entered into each machine, in the presence of polling agents. At the end of this sample trial run, the votes counted and matched with the entered sample votes, to ensure that the machine's hardware has not been tampered with, it is operating reliably and that there were no hidden votes pre-recorded in each machine.[19]Machines that yield a faulty result have been replaced to ensure a reliable electoral process.[20][21]Contents1 History 1.1 EVM and Indian judiciary 1.2 Electronic voting2 Design and technology3 Procedure to use4 Benefits5 Limitations6 Security issues 6.1 2019 allegations7 Voter-verifiable paper audit trail8 Exports9 See also10 Further reading11 References12 External linksHistoryIndia used paper ballots till the 1990s. The sheer scale of the Indian elections with more than half a billion people eligible to vote, combined with election-related criminal activity, led Indian election authority and high courts to transition to electronic voting.[2][22]According to Arvind Verma – a professor of Criminal Justice with a focus on South Asia, Indian elections have been marked by criminal fraud and ballot tampering since the 1950s. The first major election with large scale organized booth capturing were observed in 1957.[22]The journalist Prem Shankar Jha, states Milan Vaishnav, documented the booth capturing activity by Congress party leaders, and the opposition parties soon resorted to the same fraudulent activity in the 1960s.[23]A booth-capture was the phenomenon where party loyalists, criminal gangs and upper-caste musclemen entered the booth with force in villages and remote areas, and stuffed the ballot boxes with pre-filled fake paper ballots.[24][25]This problem grew between the 1950s and 1980s and became a serious and large scale problem in states such as Uttar Pradesh and Bihar,[2][22]later spreading to Andhra Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and West Bengal accompanied with election day violence.[26]Another logistical problem was the printing of paper ballots, transporting and safely storing them, and physically counting hundreds of millions of votes.[1][22]The Election Commission of India, led by T.N. Seshan, sought a solution by developing Electronic voting machines in the 1990s.[22][27]These devices were designed to prevent fraud by limiting how fast new votes can be entered into the electronic machine.[22]By limiting the rate of vote entered every minute to five, the Commission aimed to increase the time required to cast fake ballots, therefore, allow the security forces to intervene in cooperation with the volunteers of the competing political parties and the media.[2][22][5]The Commission introduced other features such as EVM initialization procedures just before the elections.[7]Officials tested each machine prior to the start of voting to confirm its reliable operation in the front of independent polling agents. They added a security lock “close” button which saved the votes already cast in the device's permanent memory but disabled the device's ability to accept additional votes in the case of any attempt to open the unit or tamper.[2][19]The Commission decided to conduct the elections over several weeks in order to move and post a large number of security forces at each booth. On the day of voting, the ballots were also locked and then saved in a secure location under the watch of state security and local volunteer citizens. Additionally, the Election Commission also created a database of thumb impressions and electronic voting signatures, open to inspection by polling agent volunteers and outside observers.[2]The EVMs-based system at each booth matches the voter with a registered card with this electronic database in order to ensure that a voter cannot cast a ballot more than once.[2][5]According to Debnath and other scholars, these efforts of the Election Commission of India – developed in consultations with the Indian courts, experts and volunteer feedback from different political parties – have reduced electoral fraud in India and made the elections fairer and more competitive.[5]EVM and Indian judiciaryEVM and electronic voting have been the subject of numerous court cases in Indian courts including the Supreme Court of India. The first case was filed in the 1980s even before EVMs were used in any election. The AC Jose vs. Sivan Pillai case was a case seeking a stay order on the use of EVMs for Kerala election.[28]The case was reviewed by the Supreme Court. It ruled on March 5, 1984, that the extant laws of India – in particular, Sections 59–61 of the Representation of People Act 1951 – specified paper ballots and it therefore forbade the use of any other technology including electronic voting. The Court stated that the use of an alternate technology would require the Indian parliament to amend the law.[28]The parliament of India amended the Representation of People Act in December 1988. Section 61A of the amended law empowered the Election Commission to deploy voting machines instead of paper ballots. The amended law became effective from March 15, 1989.[28]The use of EVMs, their reliability and speculations about fraud through the use of EVMs have been the subject of many lawsuits before state high courts and the Supreme Court of India. These courts have either dismissed the cases as frivolous or ruled in the favor of the Election Commission and the EVMs.[29]Of these, in the 2002 ruling on the J. Jayalalithaa and Ors vs. Election Commission of India case, the Supreme Court of India stated that the use of EVMs in elections was constitutionally valid.[29][30]Electronic votingThe Indian electronic voting machine (EVM) were developed in 1989 by Election Commission of India in collaboration with Bharat Electronics Limited and Electronics Corporation of India Limited. The Industrial designers of the EVMs were faculty members at the Industrial Design Centre, IIT Bombay. The EVMs were first used in 1982 in the by-election to North Paravur Assembly Constituency in Kerala for a limited number of polling stations.[31]The EVMs were first time used on an experimental basis in selected constituencies of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Delhi. The EVMs were used first time in the general election (entire state) to the assembly of Goa in 1999. In 2003, all by-elections and state elections were held using EVMs, encouraged by this election commission decided to use only EVMs for Lok Sabha elections in 2004.Design and technologyBallot Unit (left), control unit (right)An EVM consists of two units, a control unit, and the balloting unit.[32]The two units are joined by a five-meter cable. Balloting unit facilitates voting by a voter via labeled buttons while the control unit controls the ballot units, stores voting counts and displays the results on 7 segment LED displays. The controller used in EVMs has its operating program etched permanently in silicon at the time of manufacturing by the manufacturer. No one (including the manufacturer) can change the program once the controller is manufactured. The control unit is operated by one of the polling booth officers, while the balloting unit is operated by the voter in privacy. The officer confirms the voter's identification then electronically activates the ballot unit to accept a new vote. Once the voter enters the vote, the balloting unit displays the vote to the voter, records it in its memory. A "close" command issued from the control unit by the polling booth officer registers the vote, relocks the unit to prevent multiple votes. The process is repeated when the next voter with a new voter ID arrives before the polling booth officer.[32]EVMs are powered by an ordinary 6 volt alkaline battery[33]manufactured by Bharat Electronics Limited, Bangalore and Electronics Corporation of India Limited, Hyderabad. This design enables the use of EVMs throughout the country without interruptions because several parts of India do not have the power supply and/or erratic power supply. The two units cannot work without the other. After a poll closes on a particular election day, the units are separated and the control units moved and stored separately in locked and guarded premises.[32]Both units have numerous tamper-proof protocols. Their hardware, by design, can only be programmed once at the time of their manufacture and they cannot be reprogrammed.[34][7]They do not have any wireless communication components inside, nor any internet interface and related hardware.[34]The balloting unit has an internal real-time clock and a protocol by which it records every input-output event with a time stamp whenever they are connected to a battery pack.[34]The designers intentionally opted for battery power, to prevent the possibility that the power cables might be used to interfere with the reliable functioning of an EVM.[34]An EVM can record a maximum of 3840 (now 2000) votes and can cater to a maximum of 64 candidates. There is provision for 16 candidates in a single balloting unit and up to a maximum of 4 balloting units with 64 candidate names and the respective party symbols can be connected in parallel to the control unit.[32]If there are more than 64 candidates, the conventional ballot paper/box method of polling is deployed by the Election Commission.[32]After a 2013 upgrade, an Indian EVM can cater to a maximum of 384 candidates plus "None Of The Above" option (NOTA).[6]The current electronic voting machines in India are the M3 version with VVPAT capability, the older versions being M1 and M2. They are built and encoded with once-write software (read-only masked memory) at the state-owned and high-security premises of the Bharat Electronics Limited and the Electronics Corporation of India Limited.[6][35]The inventory of election EVMs is securely tracked by the Election Commission of India on a real-time basis with EVM Tracking Software (ETS). This system tracks their digital verification identity and physical presence. The M3 EVMs has embedded hardware and software that enables only a particular control unit to work with a particular voting unit issued by the Election Commission, as another layer of tamper-proofing. Additional means of tamper proofing the machines include several layers of seals. Indian EVMs are stand-alone non-networked machines.[36][37]Procedure to useThe control unit is with the presiding officer or a polling officer and the balloting Unit is placed inside the voting compartment. The balloting unit presents the voter with blue buttons (momentary switch) horizontally labeled with corresponding party symbol and candidate names. The Control Unit, on the other hand, provides the officer-in-charge with a "Ballot" marked button to proceed to the next voter, instead of issuing a ballot paper to them. This activates the ballot unit for a single vote from the next voter in the queue. The voter has to cast his vote by once pressing the blue button on the balloting unit against the candidate and symbol of his choice.As soon as the last voter has voted, the Polling Officer-in-charge of the Control Unit will press the 'Close' Button. Thereafter, the EVM will not accept any votes. Further, after the close of the poll, the Balloting Unit is disconnected from the Control Unit and kept separately. Votes can be recorded only through the Balloting Unit. Again the Presiding officer, at the close of the poll, will hand over to each polling agent present an account of votes recorded. At the time of counting of votes, the total will be tallied with this account and if there is any discrepancy, this will be pointed out by the Counting Agents. During the counting of votes, the results are displayed by pressing the 'Result' button. There are two safeguards to prevent the 'Result' button from being pressed before the counting of votes officially begins. (a) This button cannot be pressed till the 'Close' button is pressed by the Polling Officer-in-charge at the end of the voting process in the polling booth. (b) This button is hidden and sealed; this can be broken only at the counting center in the presence of designated office.BenefitsThe cost per EVM was ₹5,500 (equivalent to ₹44,000 or US$640 in 2018) at the time the machines were purchased in 1989–90. The cost was estimated to be ₹10,500 (equivalent to ₹13,000 or US$180 in 2018) per unit as per an additional order issued in 2014.[38]Even though the initial investment was heavy, it has since been expected to save costs of production and printing of crores of ballot papers, their transportation and storage, substantial reduction in the counting staff and the remuneration paid to them. For each national election, it is estimated that about 10,000 tonnes of the ballot paper are saved. EVMs are easier to transport compared to ballot boxes as they are lighter, more portable, and come with polypropylene carrying cases. Vote counting is also faster. In places where illiteracy is a factor, illiterate people find EVMs easier than ballot paper system. Bogus voting is greatly reduced as the vote is recorded only once. The unit can store the result in its memory before it is erased manually. The battery is required only to activate the EVMs at the time of polling and counting and as soon as the polling is over, the battery can be switched off. The shelf life of Indian EVMs is estimated at 15 years.[39]LimitationsMain article: TotaliserA candidate can know how many people from a polling station voted for him. This is a signNow issue particularly if lop-sided votes for/against a candidate are cast in individual polling stations and the winning candidate might show favoritism or hold a grudge on specific areas. The Election Commission of India has stated that the manufacturers of the EVMs have developed a Totaliser unit which can connect several balloting units and would display only the overall results from an Assembly or a Lok Sabha constituency instead of votes from individual polling stations.[40][41]Security issuesAn international conference on the Indian EVMs and its tamperability of the said machines was held under the chairmanship of Subramanian Swamy, President of the Janata Party and former Union Cabinet Minister for Law, Commerce and Justice at Chennai on 13 February 2010. The conclusion was that the Election Commission of India was shirking its responsibility on the transparency in the working of the EVMs.[42]In April 2010, an independent security analysis was released by a research team led by Hari K. Prasad, Rop Gonggrijp, and Alex Halderman.[18]In order to mitigate these threats, the researchers suggest moving to a voting system that provides greater transparency, such as paper ballots, precinct count optical scan, or a voter verified paper audit trail, since, in any of these systems, skeptical voters could, in principle, observe the physical counting process to gain confidence that the outcome is fair.[43]But Election Commission of India points out that for such tampering of the EVMs, one needs physical access to EVMs, and pretty high tech skills are required. Given that EVMs are stored under strict security which can be monitored by candidates or their agents all the time, its impossible to gain physical access to the machines. Plus, to impact the results of an election, hundreds to thousands of machines will be needed to tamper with, which is almost impossible given the hi-tech and time-consuming nature of the tampering process.[44][45]Manufacturers of Electronic Voting Machines, namely Electronics Corporation of India Limited, Hyderabad and Bharat Electronics Limited, Bengaluru have said that EVMs are unhackable and tamper-proof as programming for EVMs is done at a secure manufacturing facility in ECIL and BEL (where operations are logged electronically) and not with chip manufacturers.[34]Control and ballot units in EVMs and VVPATs have an anti-tamper mechanism by which they become non-operational if it is illegally opened. EVMs are standalone machines, have no radio frequency transmission device features , operate on battery packs and cannot be reprogrammed. The control Unit of EVMs has a real-time clock that logs every event on its right from the time it was switched on. The anti-tamper mechanism in the machine can detect even 100-millisecond variations.On 25 July 2011, responding to a PIL (Writ Petition (Civil) No. 312 of 2011), Supreme Court of India asked EC to consider request to modify EVMs and respond within three months. The petitioner Rajendra Satyanarayan Gilda had alleged that EC has failed to take any decision despite his repeated representation. The petitioner suggested that the EVMs should be modified to give a slip printed with the symbol of the party in whose favour the voter cast his ballot.[9][46][47][48]On 17 January 2012, Delhi High Court in its ruling on Dr. Subramanian Swamy's Writ Petition (Writ Petition (Civil) No. 11879 of 2009) challenging the use of EVMs in the present form said that EVMs are not "tamper-proof". Further, it said that it is "difficult" to issue any directions to the EC in this regard. However, the court added that the EC should itself hold wider consultations with the executive, political parties and other stake holders on the matter.[49][50]Swamy appealed against Delhi High Court's refusal to order a VVPAT system in Supreme Court. On 27 September 2012, Election Commission's advocate Ashok Desai submitted to a Supreme Court bench of Justice P. Sathasivam and Justice Ranjan Gogoi that field trial for VVPAT system is in progress and that a status report will be submitted by early January 2013. Desai said that on pressing of each vote, a paper receipt will be printed, which will be visible to the voters inside a glass but cannot be taken out of the machine. Dr. Swamy said that the new system was acceptable to him.The Supreme Court posted the matter for further hearing to 22 January 2013[51][52]and on 8 October 2013, it delivered a verdict, that the Election Commission of India will use VVPAT.[53]Another similar writ petition filed by the Asom Gana Parishad is still pending before the Gauhati High Court.[54]2019 allegationsSyed Shuja, described as a "self-claimed expert" on EVMs by The India Today,[55]has alleged that Indian EVMs can be hacked, and have been hacked by Indian political parties such as the AAP, BJP, Congress, SP and others.[56]Shuja appeared from a remote location using Skype in January 2019 for a press conference organized by the Indian Journalists’ Association[57]and the London-based Foreign Press Association.[58]He alleged that the EVM units can be wirelessly tampered with, and have been tampered with the help of Reliance Communications. He also made allegations of many murders and other criminal activity associated with EVMs tampering, allegations he could not substantiate nor did he present any evidence for his allegations before journalists gathered in London for the Shuja press interview.[59]The possibility of EVM tampering as described by Shuja have been rejected by the Election Commission of India.[55]The Commission stated that the Indian EVMs do not contain any wireless chips and related communication components.[59]The Election Commission reiterated that their official EVMs are manufactured in India under very strict supervisory and security conditions and there are "rigorous Standard Operating Procedures meticulously observed at all stages under the supervision of a Committee of eminent technical experts constituted way back in 2010".[55]The commission has charged Shuja under Section 505(1)(b) of the Indian Penal Code (titled "Punishment for Statements Conducing to Public Mischief") by lodging a First Information Report against him with the Delhi Police.[60]The Bharatiya Janata Party attributed this claim to the opposing Indian National Congress as an attempt by them to manipulate the electorate with fake news before forthcoming elections.[61]In January 2019, the London-based press conference organizer stated, "The Foreign Press Association strongly disassociates itself with any claims made by the speaker Syed Shuja during the #IJA event [about Indian EVMs and related matters] in London yesterday. Not one of the masked speaker’s accusations has so far been corroborated."[58]The India Today called Shuja's allegations as "sensationalism without substance."[58]Voter-verifiable paper audit trailFurther information: Voter-verified paper audit trailOn 8 October 2010 Election Commission appointed an expert technical committee headed by Prof. P. V. Indiresan (former Director of IIT-M) when at an all-party meeting majority of political parties backed the proposal to have a VVPAT in EVMs to counter the charges of tampering. The committee was tasked to examine the possibility of introduction of a paper trail so that voters can get a printout that will show symbol of the party to which the vote was cast.[10]After studying the issue, the committee recommended introduction of VVPAT system.[62]On 21 June 2011, Election Commission accepted Indiresan committee's recommendations and decided to conduct field trials of the system.[63]On 26 July 2011, field trials of the VVPAT system were conducted at Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir, Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala, Cherrapunjee in Meghalaya, East Delhi in Delhi and Jaisalmer in Rajasthan.[64][65]The Election Commission on 19 January 2012 agreed to add a "paper trail" of the vote cast. The upgrade of EVMs that followed modified the EVM software and a printer was attached to the machine. With the VVPAT system, when a vote is cast, it is recorded in its memory and simultaneously a serial number and vote data is printed out. This states Anil Kumar, the managing director of the state-owned EVM manufacturer Bharat Electronic Limited, ensures more confidence in the voting results.[66]The printouts, Kumar said, "are used later to cross-check the voting data stored in the EVMs".[11][67]Voter-verifiable paper audit trail was first used in an election in India in September 2013 in Noksen in Nagaland.[68]The voter-verifiable paper audit trail (VVPAT) system was introduced in 8 of 543 parliamentary constituencies in 2014.[69][70][71]VVPAT was implemented in the 2014 elections at Lucknow, Gandhinagar, Bangalore South,[72]Chennai Central, Jadavpur, Raipur, Patna Sahib[73][74]and Mizoram constituencies.[75][76][77]On 8 October 2013, Supreme Court of India delivered its verdict on Subramanian Swamy's PIL, that Election Commission of India will use VVPAT along with EVMs in a phased manner.[53][78][79]In June 2018, Election Commission of India decided that all VVPATs will have a built-in-hood to protect the printer and other devices from excess light and heat.[80]ExportsNepal, Bhutan, Namibia and Kenya have purchased India-manufactured EVMs. Fiji was expected to use Indian EVMs in its elections in 2014. In 2013, the Election Commission of Namibia acquired 1700 control units and 3500 ballot units from India's Bharat Electronics Limited; these units will be used in the regional and presidential elections in 2014.[81]Several other Asian and African countries are reportedly interested in using them as well.[82]See alsoRisk-limiting auditVoting machineElectoral fraudNone of the aboveFurther reading"WP (C) No. 11879 of 2009" (PDF). High Courts of India. 17 January 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 January 2012. Retrieved 6 July 2012. Delhi High Court judgement saying EVMs are not foolproof.ReferencesVerma, Arvind (2005). "Policing Elections in India". India Review. 4 (3–4): 354–376. doi:10.1080/14736480500302217.Madhavan Somanathan (2019). "India's electoral democracy: How EVMs curb electoral fraud". Brookings Institution, Washington DC.Kumar, D. Ashok; Begum, T. Ummal Sariba (2012). Electronic voting machine — A review. IEEE. doi:10.1109/icprime.2012.6208285. ISBN 978-1-4673-1039-0.Wilkinson, Steven (2005). "Elections in India: Behind the Congress Comeback". Journal of Democracy. Project Muse. 16 (1): 153–167. doi:10.1353/jod.2005.0018.Debnath, Sisir; Kapoor, Mudit; Ravi, Shamika (2017). "The Impact of Electronic Voting Machines on Electoral Frauds, Democracy, and Development". SSRN Journal. Elsevier BV: 1–59. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3041197.Lok Sabha elections 2019: Check FAQs related to EVMS, India Today (March 15, 2019)A look inside the electronic voting machine, The Hindu (March 10, 2019)"CPI(M), JD(S) back Advani on EVM manipulation issue". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 6 July 2009. Retrieved 23 June 2012."SC asks EC to consider request to modify EVMs". The Times of India. 26 July 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2012.Ranjan, Rakesh (15 December 2011). "Delhi HC to decide on EVMs". The Pioneer. Retrieved 10 January 2012."New EVMs to have paper trail". The Times of India. 20 January 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2012."EVM-paper trail introduced in 8 of 543 constituencies". Daily News and Analysis. 27 April 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2019."EC announces Lok Sabha election dates: VVPATs, to be used in all polling stations, help bring more accuracy in voting"."What are EVMs, VVPAT and how safe they are". The Times of India. 6 December 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2019."Count VVPAT slips of 5 booths in each assembly seat: SC"."SC Directs ECI To Increase VVPAT Verification From One EVM To Five EVMs Per Constituency"."When the SC Says No for Software Audit Review of EVMs & VVPAT at Present".Wolchok, Scott; Wustrow, Eric; Halderman, J. Alex; Prasad, Hari K.; Kankipati, Arun; Sakhamuri, Sai Krishna; Yagati, Vasavya; Gonggrijp, Rop (October 2010). Security Analysis of India's Electronic Voting Machines (PDF). 17th ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security.Electronic Voting Machine, The Election Commission of IndiaCEO issues clarification, says faulty EVM polled votes for Congress, not BJP, United News of India (April 26, 2019)Goa's faulty EVM polled votes for Congress, not BJP: CEO, Business Standard (April 26, 2019)Arvind Verma (2009). "Situational Prevention and Elections in India". International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences. 4 (2): 86–89.Milan Vaishnav (2017). When Crime Pays: Money and Muscle in Indian Politics. Yale University Press. pp. 87–88. ISBN 978-0-300-21620-2.Arvind Verma (2009). "Situational Prevention and Elections in India". International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences. 4 (2): 86–87., Quote: "Organized 'booth capturing' began in 1957 when a group of upper-caste muscle-men chased away the electorate and forcibly cast the votes for their candidate (Sen, 2004). Such booth capturing (the forcible casting of votes in favor of a particular candidate) and the use of force to prevent genuine voters from exercising their rights slowly became a serious problem in most parts of India and especially in States like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh."Milan Vaishnav (2017). When Crime Pays: Money and Muscle in Indian Politics. Yale University Press. pp. 87, 111. ISBN 978-0-300-21620-2.N. S. Saksena (1993). India, Towards Anarchy, 1967-1992. Abhinav Publications. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-81-7017-296-3.Milan Vaishnav (2017). When Crime Pays: Money and Muscle in Indian Politics. Yale University Press. pp. 110–111. ISBN 978-0-300-21620-2.Alok Shukla. EVM Electronic Voting Machines. Leadstart. pp. 70–73. ISBN 978-93-5201-122-3.Alok Shukla. EVM Electronic Voting Machines. Leadstart. pp. 72–74. ISBN 978-93-5201-122-3.Nandan Nilekani (2012). Imagining India: Ideas for the New Century. Penguin. pp. 115–117. ISBN 978-0-14-341799-6."Electronic Voting Machine, Chapter 39, Reference handbook, Election commission of India". Press Information Bureau. Archived from the original on 7 March 2009. Retrieved 1 September 2010. Used in Hazaribagh District.Vishesh Shrivastava; Girish Tere (2016). "An Analysis of Electronic Voting Machine for its Effectiveness". International Journal of Computing Experiments. 1 (1): 8–12."ECI Voting Equipments". Election Commission of India. Retrieved 10 January 2019."EVMs foolproof, can't be tampered with, says former ECIL chairman"."All Questions About EVMs Are Answered Here"."Election Commission plans to replace all pre-2006 EVMs with advanced M3 machines"."Zero Complaints Came Up After Lok Sabha Polls, Claims Expert Behind EVMs"."Electronics Corp, Bharat Electronics get EVM contracts". The Indian Express. 7 March 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2019."Shelf-life of 50% EVMs ending, have to buy 14 lakh for 2019: EC". The Indian Express. 25 October 2015. Retrieved 10 January 2019."New counting method for Assembly polls". India Today. 4 December 2008. Retrieved 10 January 2019."Know Your Electronic Voting Machine" (PDF). Press Information Bureau. Retrieved 1 September 2010."Swamy for expert panel on secure EVMs". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 22 June 2012.Ramani, Srinivasan (18 December 2017). "It takes a heck of a lot to hack an EVM". The Hindu. Retrieved 10 January 2019."EVMs cannot be tampered: K J Rao". Indian Express. 7 August 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2012.Lakshman, Narayan (10 August 2010). "Hot debate over Electronic Voting Machines". The Hindu. Chennai, India."SC order on EVM". Supreme Court of India. 25 July 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2012."SC seeks EC reply on EVM modification". The Assam Tribune. 25 July 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2012."Do EVMs need modification? SC asks EC to decide in 3 weeks". Indian Express. 25 July 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2012."EVMs not tamper-proof, but no paper trail: Delhi HC". The Times of India. 17 January 2012. Retrieved 19 January 2012."EVMs not tamper-proof: Delhi HC". The Pioneer. 18 January 2012. Retrieved 19 January 2012."Field trial of new EVMs with paper trail under way: ECI informs SC". Law et al. News. 27 September 2012. Archived from the original on 9 February 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2012."Supreme Court hearing in Special Leave to Appeal (Civil) No(s).13735/2012". Supreme Court of India. New Delhi. Retrieved 27 September 2012."Supreme Court asks Election Commission to introduce paper trail in EVMs". India Today. 8 October 2013. Retrieved 10 January 2019."EC buys time on paper trail". The Telegraph. Calcutta, India. 5 December 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2012."Motivated slugfest: Election Commission slams man claiming EVMs can be hacked". India Today. 21 January 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2019."Rigged EVM".Under attack from BJP, Kapil Sibal tries to save face after EVM hacking drama, India Today (January 22, 2019)Foreign Press Association distances itself from Syed Shuja's wild claims about 2014 rigging, India Today (January 22, 2019)Mystery man Shuja makes wild claims as London event to show EVM hacking flops, India Today (January 21, 2019)"EVM hacking claim: EC asks Delhi Police to lodge FIR". Press Trust of India. 22 January 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2019."EVM hacking claim a Congress-sponsored conspiracy to defame Indian democracy: BJP". Press Trust of India. 22 January 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2019."EVM with paper trail to be tested in 200 places". The Times of India. 1 June 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2012."Election Commission to introduce EVM and VVPAT system for more transparent electronic voting". The Economic Times. 21 June 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2012."New voting machines found perfect: Election Commission". Kolkata News. 28 July 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2012."New Voting Machines Found Perfect: EC". Daijiworld.com. 28 July 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2012.New EVMs to have paper trail, The Times of India (January 19, 2012)"New EVMs to have paper trail: BEL". Firstpost. 19 January 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2012."Nagaland first to use VVPAT device for voting". Business Standard. 4 September 2013. Retrieved 10 January 2019."LS polls: Voters to get 'automated-receipts' at Gandhinagar". Business Standard. Press Trust of India. 29 April 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2019."VVPAT machine to be on demonstration for 10 days". The Hindu. 4 April 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2019."VVPAT to be introduced in Jadavpur constituency". India TV News. 2 April 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2019."VVPAT to Debut in B'lore South". The New Indian Express. 4 April 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2019."Patna Sahib electorate can see who they voted for". The Times of India. Retrieved 10 January 2019."400 EVMs on standby for Patna Sahib, Pataliputra". The Times of India. Retrieved 10 January 2019."Election Commission of India". Election Commission of India. Retrieved 10 January 2019."VVPAT, a revolutionary step in voting transparency". Daily News and Analysis. 27 April 2014. Retrieved 27 April 2014."EVM slip will help verify your vote". The Times of India. Retrieved 10 January 2019."Civil Appeal No.9093 of 2013". Supreme Court of India. Archived from the original on 2 May 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2019."Elections 2014: SC directive to EC for paper trail in EVMs". The Hindu. 8 October 2013. Retrieved 10 January 2019.Vishnoi, Anubhuti (11 June 2018). "All VVPATs in 2019 to come with hood to keep light at bay". The Economic Times. Retrieved 10 January 2019."ECN unveils 'tamper-free' voting machines". Namibian Sun. 5 July 2013. Archived from the original on 9 July 2013.Tiwari, Rajnish; Herstatt, Cornelius (January 2012). "India – A Lead Market for Frugal Innovations? Extending the Lead Market Theory to Emerging Economies" (PDF). Hamburg University of Technology. p. 18. Retrieved 11 March 2013."Supreme Court issues contempt notice to Election Commission of India". Critic Brain - India News, Politics, Opinions - on Thoughts on Talks. 1 July 2016. Archived from the original on 21 January 2018. Retrieved 31 December 2018.External links"Electronic Voting Machine". Election Commission of India.Security Analysis of India's Electronic Voting Machines, Scott Wolchok et al, A paper presented at the 17th ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security ConferenceCategories:Science and technology in IndiaElections in IndiaElectronic voting by countryElection technologyNavigation menuNot logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearchMain pageContentsFeatured contentCurrent eventsRandom articleDonate to WikipediaWikipedia storeInteractionHelpAbout WikipediaCommunity portalRecent changesContact pageToolsWhat links hereRelated changesUpload fileSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationWikidata itemCite this pagePrint/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFPrintable versionLanguagesभोजपुरीहिन्दीاردوEdit linksThis page was last edited on 5 August 2019, at 18:09 (UTC).Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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