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FAQs
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If you sign an e-filed document with a character that changes your name, would it no longer be legally binding?
This might become a question for the trier of fact, were the matter to somehow make it into court (on an action for bsignNow or a declaratory judgment).There’s no particular formality required of a legal signature—any mark that is intended as a signature is a signature. You can sign a document with an “X” or your initials or the words “I got this,” and theoretically it’s just as binding as a perfect cursive script of your name.The custom that signatures are handwritten is based on a traditional method of authentication—if the signature is handwritten in the maker’s usual handwriting, that is actually a fact that helps prove it’s a signature. If the signature is something other than that, it’s good practice to have witnesses also subscribe—in the event of a dispute the witnesses could be asked to testify that yes, they saw the maker sign the instrument and they themselves signed to attests that fact.“E-signing” obviously removes the “handwritten” aspect of the signature, but it doesn’t change the nature of the signature—the “electronic” signature is still a signature if made with the intent of being one.It’s possible that the computer routine that captures the “e-signature” would reject the “signature” if the character were changed. That’s happened to me already when I made a typo in the little box for it. But that’s a matter of programming, not law.The long and the short of it is this is that the variation would be considered in light of the totality of the evidence. It would likely be considered inconsequential by a court considering the issue as long as corroborating evidence such as a consistent IP address and time of submission make it seem more likely than not that the person who typed the name into the box was the same person who was supposed to be signing. Conversely to challenge the signature on this basis, you’d likely need more than just a minor variation in form but the possibility of a plausible explanation involving impersonation or fraud.
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How are cracked versions of software created and why are developers not able to prevent it?
Cracked versions of software are created with the use of debuggers. (A debugger is a special type of software that lets programmers deconstruct their software into its constituent parts for the purpose of finding bugs, and thus de-bugging. Additionally debuggers can be used for reverse-engineering, or to see what is inside the software, to learn its logic. The latter method is used mostly by malware researchers to study what malware (or computer viruses) do on-the-inside. But it can be also used by an attacker to "crack" (or bypass) legal software registration, or at times, to alter normal behavior of software, for instance by injecting a malicious code into it.)For the sake of this example, I will assume that the software that is being "cracked" was compiled into a native code, and is not a .NET or a JavaScript based application. (Otherwise it will be somewhat trivial to view its source code.) The compiled native code is a bit more tricky "beast" to study. (Native means that the code executes directly by the CPU, GPU, or other hardware.)So let's assume that the goal of an attacker is to bypass the registration logic in the software so that he or she doesn't have to pay for it. (Later for lolz, he or she may also post such "crack" on some shady online forum or on a torrent site so that others can "use" it too and give him or her their appreciation.)For simplicity let's assume that the original logic that was checking for the software registration was written in C++ and was something similar to the following code snippet:In this code sample "RegistrationName" and "RegistrationCode" are special strings of text that a legitimate software user will receive after paying for the license. (The name is usually that person's actual name or their email address, and the code is some string of unique/special characters that is tied to the name.)In the logic above, the function named "isRegistrationCodeGood()" will check if "RegistrationName" and "RegistrationCode" are accepted using some proprietary method. If they are, it will return true. Otherwise false. That outcode will dictate which branch (or scope) the execution will follow.So the logic above will either show that registration failed and quit:Or, if the registration code and name matched, it will save the registration details in persistent storage (such as the File System or System Registry) using the function named "rememberRegistrationParameters()" and then display the message thanking the user for registering:A "cracker" will obviously want to achieve the second result for any registration code that he or she enters. But they have a problem. They do not have the C++ source code, part of which I showed above. (I hope not!)So the only recourse for an attacker is to disassemble the binary code (that always ships with software in the form of .exe and .dll files on Windows, and mostly as Unix executables inside the .app packages on a Mac.) An attacker will then use a debugger to study the binary code and try to locate the registration logic that I singled out above.Next you can see the flowchart for a snippet of code that I showed in C++, presented via a low-level debugger. Or, as the code will be read in the binary form after compilation:(For readability I added comments on the right with the names of functions and variables. They will not be present in the code that an attacker could see.)(To understand what is shown above an attacker will have to have good knowledge of the Assembly language instructions for the native code.)I also need to point out that having a disassembly snippet like the one above is the final result for an attacker. The main difficulty for him or her is to locate it among millions and millions of other similar lines of code. And that is their main challenge. Not many people can do it and that is why software "cracking" is a special skill.So having found the code snippet above in the software binary file a "cracker" has two choices:1) Modify (or patch) the binary.2) Reverse-engineer the "isRegistrationCodeGood()" function and copy its logic to create what is known as a "KeyGen" or "Key Generator."Let's review both:The first choice is quite straightforward. Since an attacker got this far, he or she knows the Intel x64 Instruction Set quite well. So they simply change the conditional jump from "jnz short loc_7FF645671430" at the address 00007FF645671418 (circled in red in the screenshots) to unconditional jump, or "jmp short loc_7FF645671430". This will effectively remove any failed registration code entries and anything that the user types in will be accepted as a valid registration.Also note that this modification can be achieved by changing just one byte in the binary code from 0x75 to 0xEB:But this approach comes with a "price" of modifying the original binary file. For that an attacker needs to write his own "patcher" (or a small executable that will apply the modification that I described above.) The downside of this approach for an attacker is that patching an original executable file will break its digital signature, which may alert the end-user or the vendor. Additionally the "patcher" executable made by an attacker can be easily flagged and blocked by the end-user's antivirus software, or lead criminal investigators to the identity of the attacker.The second choice is a little bit more tricky. An attacker will have to study "isRegistrationCodeGood()" function and copy it into his own small program that will effectively duplicate the logic implemented in the original software and let him generate the registration code from any name, thus giving any unscrupulous user of that software an ability to register it without making a payment.Vendors of many major software products understand the potential impact of the second method and try to prevent it by requiring what is known as "authentication." This is basically a second step after registration, where the software submits registration name to the company's web server that returns a response back to the software of whether the code was legitimate or not. This is done by Microsoft when you purchase Windows (they call it "Activate Windows") and also by signNow, and many other companies. This second step may be done behind-the-scenes on the background while the software is running, and will usually lead to cancellation of prior registration if it was obtained illegally.So now you know how software is "cracked".Let me answer why it is not possible to prevent it. It all boils down to the fact that any software code needs to be read either by CPU (in case of a binary native code) or by an interpreter or a JIT compiler (in case of JavaScript or .NET code.) This means that if there's a way to read/interpret something, no matter how complex or convoluted it is, an attacker with enough knowledge and persistence will be able to read it as well, and thus break it.There is an argument though that cloud-based software is more secure, which is true, since its (binary) code remains on the server and end-users do not have direct access to it. And even though cloud-based software is definitely the future, it has some major drawbacks that will never allow it to fully replace your conventional software. To name just a few:Not everyone has an internet connection, or is willing to upload their data online. Additionally someone’s internet connection can be very expensive or too slow to make the software run very laggy.Then there’s a question of distributed computing. For instance, Blizzard Entertainment would never make “World of Warcraft” to fully run on their servers due to immense computational resources needed to render every single scene for every player they have. Thus it is in their best interest to let each individual user’s computer to do the rendering instead.As a software developer myself, I obviously don't like when people steal software licenses. But I have to accept it and live with it. The good news is that there are not that many people who are willing to go extra mile and search for a cracked version of software. The main problem for those who do, is that by downloading a patched executable, or an attacker's KeyGen or a Patcher, they are effectively "trusting" him or her not to put anything "nasty" into it that was not "advertised on the package" (stuff like trojans, malware, or keyloggers.) So the question for those people becomes -- is it worth the cost of the software license to potentially infect your system with a nasty virus?On the other side of the equation, some developers react very negatively to any attempts to steal their software licenses. (I was there too.) They try to implement all kinds of countermeasures -- anything from tricking reverse-engineers, to adding booby traps in the code that may do something nasty if the code detects that it is being debugged, to obfuscating or scrambling the code, to enforcing all kinds of convoluted DRM schemes, to blocking users from certain countries. I personally try to stay away from all of those measures. And here's why:A) Any kind of anti-reverse-engineering tactics could be bypassed by an attacker with enough persistence. So why bother and waste my time when I can invest that time into adding something useful to my software that will make it more productive for legitimate users?B) Some code packers could create false positives with antivirus software, which is obviously not good for marketing of that software. It also creates unnecessary complexity for the developer to debug the software.C) Adding booby traps in the code can also “misfire” on your legitimate users, which will really infuriate them and can even lead to lawsuits.D) Any DRM scheme will probably catch some 100 illegal users and greatly inconvenience 10,000 legitimate ones. So why do it to your good customers?E) Our statistics show that about 75% of all illegal licenses come from China, Russia, Brazil, to name the worst offenders. (I also understand that the reason may be much lower incomes that people have in those countries.) The main issue for us though was the fact that if we enforce our DRM or add some strong registration authentication, many people that wanted to bypass our registration would simply use a stolen credit card number. And we had no control over it. Our system will use it to send them a legitimate license only to have the payment bounce in weeks time. As a result we would lose the money that were paid for the license, plus the credit card company will impose an additional chargeback fee to our account, which may range from $0.25 to $20 per bad purchase on top of the license cost.F) As was pointed out in the comments, some companies may actually benefit from allowing pirated copies of their software. Microsoft for instance gets a lot of free publicity from people using their Windows OS, the same goes for signNow with their Photoshop. That is a good point that I agree with.So my philosophy is now this -- if someone wants to go extra mile and steal our software, go for it! They went this far to do it anyway, so they probably have a good reason. On the positive side there are so many other customers that appreciate the work that goes into creating software that greatly outnumber those that don’t.PS. Thank you for all your feedback! It makes me feel good that the knowledge I shared is useful to others.
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How do I register a startup in India? How much money and time does it take? If am currently only 17, what issues will I face dur
Algorithm for starting a Private Limited Company: Engineer's View Personally I believe, If someone is starting a company with long term perspective or to bring some change through their unique Product/Services, one must go for Private limited firm. Prime reason for this is easy to raise funds from Angels/VC in case you go for investment. Step 1. Registration of Company 1. Name Selection: Check whether your desired company name is available or not at MCA website [ http://www.mca.gov.in/ ]. Name must be unique & must resemble with business you intend to do (highlighted one). EX: Arihant Labs Retail Services Pvt. Ltd 2. Registration of Name at ROC: Name approval usually takes maximum of 14 days. This is done online through MCA website. Moreover, you need to apply with at least 4 names for approval with a writeup about significance of names with main business of the company. 3. 1. Documents Required: 2. 1. Options for names for the proposed Company (on the basis of preference) 2. Amount of Share Capital; proposed shareholding ratio 3. A paragraph on the proposed major line of business of the company (main objects) 4. City of Registered Office. 5. Copy of ownership deed/sale deed(if property is owned) 6. Copy of rent agreement with NOC (if property is rented) 7. Copy of latest electricity bill/telephone bill/mobile bill for both directors 8. Copy of latest electric bill/telephone bill for the registered office proof. 4. Obtaining DIN & DSC: 5. 1. Documents Required 2. 1. PAN Card copies for directors and shareholders. 2. Voter ID/Passport/Driving License for directors and shareholders. 3. Occupation of the Directors for directors and shareholders. 4. E-Mail IDs of all directors and shareholders. 5. Phone Numbers for all directors and shareholders. 6. Photos for directors and shareholders 6. Company Incorporation: After above mentioned formalities have been completed, we need to file following forms/docs in Rs 100 stamp paper: 7. 1. Affidavits for non- acceptance 2. INC 9, INC 10 3. DIR 2 4. NOC : This is required to be filed by the owner of the property on which your company will be situated. 5. Subscriber Sheets of MOA & AOA 6. Documents required for filling MOA & AOA 7. 1. Must be filled on OWN handwriting 2. Passport size photos 3. Sheets needs to be witnessed by CA/CS/Advocate Step 2. Obtaining PAN/TAN: After company gets incorporated, you may apply for PAN/TAN. Step 3. Trade Licence in case you are selling PRODUCTS: This is required in some places for carrying out sales. You can obtain this from local Municipality. Step 4. VAT/CST registration for selling Products: For selling intra-state, you need VAT registration & for selling inter-state, you need to register for CST. 1. Documents Required: 2. 1. Trade Licence 2. Company Incorporation Certificate 3. PAN card of company as well as of all the directors 4. Proof of residence of Directors 5. Proof of occupancy of place of business (Rent agreement/ ownership deed, Rent Bills etc) 6. MOA & AOA of company 7. Current Account in the name of company in any national bank Step 5. Service tax registration for Service Industry: In India, you need to pay service tax of 14.5% on every services you have charged customer for. 1. Documents Required: 2. 1. Company Incorporation Certificate 2. PAN card of company as well as of all the directors 3. Proof of residence of Directors 4. Proof of occupancy of place of business (Rent agreement/ ownership deed, Rent Bills etc) 5. MOA & AOA of company 6. Current Account in the name of company in any national bank That's All folks! Your STARTUP is up to Conquer the World. UPVOTE & SHARE your views/issues We at labkafe [ http://labkafe.com/ ], prefer taxmantra [ http://taxmantra.com/ ] for our legal requirements.
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What are the cyber security laws that everyone must know?
According to Information Technology Act 2000(IT Act 2000) and its Amendment here are some of the list of law :OFFENCES:65. Tampering with computer source documents.Whoever knowingly or intentionally conceals, destroys or alters or intentionally or knowingly causes another to conceal, destroy, or alter any computer Source code used for a computer, computer programme, computer system or computer network, when the computer source code is required to be kept or maintained by law for the time being in force, shall be punishable with imprisonment up to three years, or with fine which may extend up to two lakh rupees, or with both.Explanation.–For the purposes of this section, “computer source code” means the listing of programmes, computer commands, design and layout and programme analysis of computer resource in any form.66. Computer related offences.–If any person, dishonestly or fraudulently, does any act referred to in section 43, he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years or with fine which may extend to five lakh rupees or with both.Explanation.–For the purposes of this section,–(a) the word “dishonestly” shall have the meaning assigned to it in section 24 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860)(b) the word “fraudulently” shall have the meaning assigned to it in section 25 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860).66A. Punishment for sending offensive messages through communication service, etc.–Any person who sends, by means of a computer resource or a communication device,–(a) any information that is grossly offensive or has menacing character; or(b) any information which he knows to be false, but for the purpose of causing annoyance, inconvenience, danger, obstruction, insult, injury, criminal intimidation, enmity, hatred or ill will, persistently by making use of such computer resource or a communication device;(c) any electronic mail or electronic mail message for the purpose of causing annoyance or inconvenience or to deceive or to mislead the addressee or recipient about the origin of such messages,shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years and with fine.Explanation.–For the purpose of this section, terms “electronic mail” and “electronic mail message”means a message or information created or transmitted or received on a computer, computer system,computer resource or communication device including attachments in text, images, audio, video and anyother electronic record, which may be transmitted with the message.66B. Punishment for dishonestly receiving stolen computer resource or communication device.–Whoever dishonestly received or retains any stolen computer resource or communication device knowingor having reason to believe the same to be stolen computer resource or communication device,shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to three years or with fine which may extend to rupees one lakh or with both.66C. Punishment for identity theft.–Whoever, fraudulently or dishonestly make use of theelectronic signature, password or any other unique identification feature of any other person,shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to three years andshall also be liable to fine which may extend to rupees one lakh.66D. Punishment for cheating by personation by using computer resource.–Whoever, by meansof any communication device or computer resource cheats by personating, shall be punished withimprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to three years and shall also be liable tofine which may extend to one lakh rupees.66E. Punishment for violation of privacy.–Whoever, intentionally or knowingly captures, publishesor transmits the image of a private area of any person without his or her consent, under circumstancesviolating the privacy of that person, shall be punished with imprisonment which may extend to three yearsor with fine not exceeding two lakh rupees, or with both.Explanation.–For the purposes of this section–(a) “transmit” means to electronically send a visual image with the intent that it be viewed by a person or persons;(b) “capture”, with respect to an image, means to videotape, photograph, film or record by any means;(c) “private area” means the naked or undergarment clad genitals, public area, buttocks or female breast:(d) “publishes” means reproduction in the printed or electronic form and making it available for public;(e) “under circumstances violating privacy” means circumstances in which a person can have a reasonable expectation that–(i) he or she could disrobe in privacy, without being concerned that an image of his private area was being captured; or(ii) any part of his or her private area would not be visible to the public, regardless of whetherthat person is in a public or private place.67. Punishment for publishing or transmitting obscene material in electronic form.–Whoever publishes or transmits or causes to be published or transmitted in the electronic form, any material whichis lascivious or appeals to the prurient interest or if its effect is such as to tend to deprave and corruptpersons who are likely, having regard to all relevant circumstances, to read, see or hear the matter contained or embodied in it, shall be punished on first conviction with imprisonment of either descriptionfor a term which may extend to three years and with fine which may extend to five lakh rupees and in theevent of second or subsequent conviction with imprisonment of either description for a term which mayextend to five years and also with fine which may extend to ten lakh rupees.67A. Punishment for publishing or transmitting of material containing sexually explicit act, etc., in electronic form.–Whoever publishes or transmits or causes to be published or transmitted in theelectronic form any material which contains sexually explicit act or conduct shall be punished on firstconviction with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to five years and withfine which may extend to ten lakh rupees and in the event of second or subsequent conviction withimprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to seven years and also with fine whichmay extend to ten lakh rupees.67B. Punishment for publishing or transmitting of material depicting children in sexually explicit act, etc., in electronic form.–Whoever,–(a) publishes or transmits or causes to be published or transmitted material in any electronic formwhich depicts children engaged in sexually explicit act or conduct; or(b) creates text or digital images, collects, seeks, browses, downloads, advertises, promotes,exchanges or distributes material in any electronic form depicting children in obscene or indecent or sexually explicit manner;or(c) cultivates, entices or induces children to online relationship with one or more children for and on sexually explicit act or in a manner that may offend a reasonable adult on the computer resource;or(d) facilitates abusing children online, or(e) records in any electronic form own abuse or that of others pertaining to sexually explicit actwith children,shall be punished on first conviction with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extendto five years and with fine which may extend to ten lakh rupees and in the event of second or subsequentconviction with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to seven years and also with fine which may extend to ten lakh rupees:Provided that provisions of section 67, section 67A and this section does not extend to any book,pamphlet, paper, writing, drawing, painting representation or figure in electronic form–(i) the publication of which is proved to be justified as being for the public good on theground that such book, pamphlet, paper, writing, drawing, painting representation or figure is theinterest of science, literature, art or learning or other objects of general concern; or(ii) which is kept or used for bonafide heritage or religious purposes.Explanation–For the purposes of this section, “children” means a person who has not completedthe age of 18 years.80. Power of police officer and other officers to enter, search, etc.–(1) Notwithstanding anythingcontained in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974), any police officer, not below the rank of a1[Inspector], or any other officer of the Central Government or a State Government authorised by theCentral Government in this behalf may enter any public place and search and arrest without warrant anyperson found therein who is reasonably suspected of having committed or of committing or of beingabout to commit any offence under this Act.Explanation.–For the purposes of this sub-section, the expression “public place” includes any publicconveyance, any hotel, any shop or any other place intended for use by, or accessible to the public.(2) Where any person is arrested under sub-section (1) by an officer other than a police officer, suchofficer shall, without unnecessary delay, take or send the person arrested before a magistrate havingjurisdiction in the case or before the officer-in-charge of a police station.(3) The provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974) shall, subject to theprovisions of this section, apply, so far as may be, in relation to any entry, search or arrest, made underthis section.85. Offences by companies.–(1) Where a person committing a contravention of any of the provisionsof this Act or of any rule, direction or order made there under is a company, every person who, at the timethe contravention was committed, was in charge of, and was responsible to, the company for the conductof business of the company as well as the company, shall be guilty of the contravention and shall be liableto be proceeded against and punished accordingly:Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such person liable to punishmentif he proves that the contravention took place without his knowledge or that he exercised all due diligenceto prevent such contravention.(2) Not with standing anything contained in sub-section (1), where a contravention of any of the provisions of this Act or of any rule, direction or order made thereunder has been committed by acompany and it is proved that the contravention has taken place with the consent or connivance of, or isattributable to any neglect on the part of, any director, manager, secretary or other officer of the company,
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Since many schools have stopped teaching cursive, will signatures not be used in the future?
The people who are deciding educational curriculum are short sighted enough to think so. But it’s not just about writing one’s name. Not knowing cursive means they cant read it either. Which means they won’t be able to read historic documents. Future generations will be unable to access the original Declaration if Independence and US Constitution and Bill of Rights because they are in ‘cursive’. It’s like returning to the middle ages when the Catholic clergy were the only ones literate enough to read the Christian bible. The masses had to rely on them to tell them what was in the bible. And now the future masses are going to have to rely on the literate minority once again.Its a huge step backward socially and intellectually, isn’t it?Because future generations will in majority be beholden to the minority if their homeschooled and private schooled peers who are still being taught to do cursive. The argument is that writing isn’t necessary because everyone types now.But what happens if the electric grid goes down? What happens if electronics are sabotaged or cease to work?Typing is impossible and no one can write. The world is in trouble.
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What are some things that should be considered when designing a programming language?
There are plenty of practicals of programming language design (I think Adrian Ho’s answer is great in talking about this), but, to me, the most important thing to consider is that, eventually, your programming language will have to be used by people.Most (if not all) programming languages ignore this, and they come up with these beautiful mathematical foundations… and then people just ignore them and use it in ways the designers did not predict because the costs using it “the right way” are way too damn high (in a huge part because they never ran any usability study with actual humans).I’ll go through a couple of examples of this.Consider Java. When designing the language they thought that it would be great for reasoning about programs if the possible exceptions every operation could raise was expressed directly in the signature (known as “checked exceptions”). They were right about that. Exceptions bubble up all the way through your dynamic call stack, so you can’t know what to expect by just reading the operation’s source code. And you need to know the ways in which your program can fail if you want to build software that is resistant to errors.So checked exceptions are a great idea. They’re solving a real problem people have. The mathematical model for it is pretty solid. Yet a ton of Java programmers are extremely dissatisfied with them. To the point most other languages would never consider this feature even though it’s a good feature.The problem in Java is that they did not run usability studies. They did not think about things like “if we have a huge codebase, and this code is used by thousands of other projects, and I add this exception to this one operation, what happens?” What happens is that everyone’s code breaks, which is an unacceptable cost for any software. It may take months to years of work from people you don’t even know to get each piece of software to work again. So, instead of relying on this great feature for reasoning, people choose to take the costs of poor static reasoning by using less fine-grained exceptions, relying more on unchecked exceptions, etc.Note that this doesn’t mean that checked exceptions are bad. THEY’RE GREAT. They’re an amazing feature for static reasoning, and every programming language out there should support this task (static reasoning). The problem with Java’s implementation is in the costs for actual humans using the language. It’s in how humans write software collaboratively. In how software codebases evolve over time. In how we don’t really control every single piece of code we use. These costs were not considered when people decided to implement checked exceptions in Java the way they did.Now let’s consider another programming language with this very same feature: Frank[1] . Frank is a language where not only the exceptions are checked. EVERY EFFECT IS. If a function mutates a variable, its signature will have to say that it mutates a variable. If it sends a request over the network, its signature will have to say that. From just looking at the signature in Frank you know not only how an operation may fail, but all of the things that it or the functions it calls may do.You’d think that this would be a disaster. After all, if you add a simple piece of code to log some information, you’ll effectively change the signatures of all operations that call that function through any amount of indirection. If you change F, which is called by G, which is called by H, which is called by Main, then all of these functions would break.Yet, things work perfectly in Frank. It has none of the problems Java has. If you add new things to an operation that has a thousand of callers, none of those callers need any changes. But your IDE will now show all of the additional things all those thousand functions can do/how they can fail. If you remove things from an operation, only the callers that depended on those things will need changes—and this is good, because they’d break at runtime anyway.Frank allows this through the amazing power of type inference. The compiler does all of this work for you, and you get all of the benefits. Everyone’s happy, because the costs of maintaining and evolving software are now much lower. People feel like they can use the features, and it won’t end up just being a burden in the future.Now let’s talk about where Frank goes wrong. Indeed being able to get the benefits of static reasoning without paying a huge price for it is great. But in real code bases there’s usually a lot of code that never gets ran. You add a lot of dependencies, and you might use 5% of their functions, but if any of the 95% you don’t use have a problem your code won’t compile. You won’t be able to ship, even though the problematic code will never get executed—it would have never been a problem!Sadly, all static programming languages have this problem. They require that all of the code you’ve included is consistent according to the type system rules, even if you don’t use most of it. That’s not only an unreasonable cost to pay, but it’s not even a predictable cost. How would you know that this obscure function in a library you’ve only included for one of its data structures has a type error? You don’t even care, for Christ’s sake.Now, again, type checking is a good feature. And I think a lot more people agree with this one than with checked exceptions. After all, type systems prevent a lot of problems that would be much more costly if we left them to be found in production. But, still, why do we have to pay for things that we don’t even care about or use? We don’t buy the entire supermarket when doing grocery shopping.Some people realised this, and they’ve worked on a gradual typing theory. This means that your type system allows your program to be only partially correct—if the pieces you use are correct, that’s really all that matters, you should be able to run or ship it. But you don’t really have to give up all of those other benefits for this, like you would in a dynamically typed language. You can still have your cake and eat it. Hazel[2] is an example of this.This happens a lot with security too, so let’s talk about that. JavaScript introduced a construct called Template Literals[3] . The idea comes from Quasi-Literals[4] in E, which in turn comes from Quasi-Quotation in Lisps. And it’s a brilliant idea—and as you may have been expecting by now, poorly executed.See, we have a lot of security issues in software that comes from people not using structured data formats[5] . SQL injections happen because people are putting strings together to form SQL queries. Shell injections happen because people are putting strings together to form Shell commands. HTML injections (XSS) happen because people are putting strings together to form HTML pages.This makes it seem that strings are evil, but the problem here is not strings per se. If you look at what people are doing in the places that have these security vulnerabilities there are two common themes:They want to build complex components from simpler parts. The usual case with templating in HTML involves things like “include this header here”, for example. In SQL it could be “include this filter in the WHERE clause, but only if that condition is fulfilled.”They want to include information that they don’t control in the components. For example, the text the user sent in a search input could be included in a WHERE clause to find things containing it.Both of these are very valid use cases, so it’s not like people are just creating security vulnerabilities for the fun of it. Both of these cases still happen with experienced programmers, and they’re equally ridden with security vulnerabilities, so it’s not a problem with experience either. These two cases also happen in all programming languages, so it’s not like some programming language is forcing these on people either—people want to do this.Interestingly, even though people’re doing this same thing in Lisp dialects, the vulnerabilities seem to happen less frequently. Conversely, it happens very frequently in PHP. We do need to keep in mind PHP is very popular, while Lisp dialects are not. The Lisp community can’t represent the PHP community, nor the programming community at large. But it’s still interesting; after all, people are writing systems that use databases in both languages.One difference between Lisp dialects and PHP is that Lisp dialects tend to represent everything with structured data (S-expressions-based). While using S-expressions, combining data always preserves the composition rules.For example, if you have “(select table (where (gt 'id x)))”, it doesn’t matter what the variables “table” and “x” contain, they won’t be able to arbitrarily change your query. You can’t just make “table = ‘* FROM user; DROP TABLE user’” and hope that it’ll work. The likelihood is low because only one person has to get the query implementation right—the person who implements the SQL library. The people creating queries (and thus dealing with the two “wants” above) don’t have to care. They just can’t possibly get it wrong. And the cost of using it is really low, so there’s no reason to look for alternative ways of achieving the same thing.In PHP your database library expects a String, and it’s very usual to find people building strings like: “SELECT * FROM “ . $table . “ WHERE id > “ . $x. The attack above now works, because you have to guarantee that your textual composition is correct every time you do it. The people who implemented the SQL library can’t help you.The costs keep growing because every composition, every context, requires special attention. People aren’t good with things that require a lot of attention all the time. They might get it wrong when they’re trying to fix a production bug at 00:00 because something else broke and they have to bring the system back really quickly. They might get it wrong because they didn’t get enough sleep last night. Or because they had a fight with their spouse. Or because their grandfather passed away. There’ll always be something that affects people’s attention, and we can’t rely on it for security. So, the cost can’t be there.And this is why template strings are such a great idea. They give people exactly what they’re familiar with when using strings—you can keep writing your SQL queries like you used to, mostly. But at the same time gives us the same properties Lisp libraries have when using structured data. We don’t have to care about composition rules anymore. When we write something like:sql`SELECT * FROM $table WHERE id > $x` We only have to rely on the person who wrote the “sql” function getting it right. Only one person has to get it right. And they don’t have to implement that under stress or emotional pressure or whatever!Yet, it doesn’t work in JavaScript. And it doesn’t happen for three simple reasons:JavaScript has a string interpolation syntax. You can write `SELECT * FROM $table WHERE id > $x`. This has the same semantics as the PHP example, which means it’s every bit as problematic for humans. But it’s also more straightforward to write than the tagged version, which is safer. The cost of writing secure code is higher than writing potentially vulnerable one.There’s no “sql” function in the standard library. I think they did consider adding common implementations of these in the standard library, but they never did. Rolling your own parser is a lot of work. Not everyone has learned how to write parsers and compilers. And a lot of people’d approach it with things like Yacc or Bison. While things like Miller’s Quasi Parser Generator would reduce this cost, it’s still a unlikely that people will choose to write a parser for SQL instead of just concatenating strings and hoping for the best.All database libraries in JavaScript accept strings for the query, instead of structured data, so using strings is much cheaper for the developer.As a result, the tagged variant of String Templates in JavaScript is hardly ever used by programmers. It doesn’t feel like it’s solving a problem (even though it is). It is very cumbersome to use, compared to just naive concatenation with untagged templates. And all libraries already encourage using strings anyway.I could go on, but this is already too long, and you get the idea :’)So, to summarise:Think about how humans will use your programming language.Think about what it means to use your features in terms of costs for humans, not just for computers. Thinking about execution performance and memory is great, but think about the human cost as well.Footnotes[1] Do be do be do[2] Hazel, a live functional programming environment featuring typed holes.[3] Template literals (Template strings)[4] QuasiLiterals[5] The Importance Of Being Typed
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What is ITR Form 2?
The income tax department has segregated the taxpayer based on their status, source of income , basis of income and other factors. Taxpayer having taxable income are required to file income tax return based on their incomes.ITR 2 is to be filed by individual or HUF (not having income from PGBP ) and not eligible to file ITR 1ITR 1 is to be filed by individual or HUF having total income upto Rs 50L from salary, 1 HP and other sources. Agriculture income should not exceed Rs 5000.ITR 2 can be downloaded and submitted on the income tax website . After successful filing an acknowledgement will be sent to your registered email id which can also be downloaded manually.There are certain category of people who can also submit the return offline.For AY 18–19 , the last day of filing ITR 2 is 31st July 2018 . If it is filed after the due date penalty under Section 234F will be levied.
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Does anyone know under which section of the law comes cyber crime or bsignNowing of data on the internet?
The Information Technology Act 2000 (amended in 2008)The Information Technology Act was first drawn up in 2000, and has been revised most recently 2008. The Information Technology (Amendment) Bill, 2008 amended sections 43 (data protection), 66 (hacking), 67 (protection against unauthorised access to data), 69 (cyberterrorism), and 72 (privacy and confidentiality) of the Information Technology Act, 2000, which relate to computer/cybercrimes.Section 43 [Penalty and Compensation for damage to computer, computer system, etc.] amended vide Information Technology Amendment Act 2008 reads as under:If any person without permission of the owner or any other person who is in-charge of a computer, computer system or computer network:accesses or secures access to such computer, computer system or computer network or computer resource (ITAA2008)downloads, copies or extracts any data, computer data base or information from such computer, computer system or computer network including information or data held or stored in any removable storage medium;introduces or causes to be introduced any computer contaminant or computer virus into any computer, computer system or computer network;damages or causes to be damaged any computer, computer system or computer network, data, computer data base or any other programmes residing in such computer, computer system or computer network;disrupts or causes disruption of any computer, computer system or computer network;denies or causes the denial of access to any person authorized to access any computer, computer system or computer network by any means;provides any assistance to any person to facilitate access to a computer, computer system or computer network in contravention of the provisions of this Act, rules or regulations made there under;charges the services availed of by a person to the account of another person by tampering with or manipulating any computer, computer system, or computer network;destroys, deletes or alters any information residing in a computer resource or diminishes its value or utility or affects it injuriously by any means (Inserted vide ITAA-2008); andSteals, conceals, destroys or alters or causes any person to steal, conceal, destroy or alter any computer source code used for a computer resource with an intention to cause damage, (Inserted vide ITAA 2008) he shall be liable to pay damages by way of compensation to the person so affected. (change vide ITAA 2008)Critique: In comparison to the laws enacted in other countries, this provision still falls short of a strong data protection law. In most other countries data protection laws specify:the definition and classification of data types;the nature and protection of the categories of data;that equal protection will be given to data stored offline and data stored manually;that data controllers and data processors have distinct roles;clear restrictions on the manner of data collection;clear guidelines on the purposes for which the data can be put and to whom it can be sent;standards and technical measures governing the collection, storage, access to, protection, retention, and destruction of data;that providers of goods or services must have a clear opt - in or opt - out option; andin addition, most countries provide strong safeguards and penalties against bsignNowes of any of the aboveSection 66 [Computer Related Offences] amended vide Information Technology Amendment Act 2008 reads as under:If any person, dishonestly, or fraudulently, does any act referred to in section 43, he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two three years or with fine which may extend to five lakh rupees or with both.Explanation: For the purpose of this section,-the word "dishonestly" shall have the meaning assigned to it in section 24 of the Indian Penal Code;the word "fraudulently" shall have the meaning assigned to it in section 25 of the Indian Penal Code. [Section 66 A] [Punishment for sending offensive messages through communication service, etc.] (Introduced vide ITAA 2008):Any person who sends, by means of a computer resource or a communication device,-any information that is grossly offensive or has menacing character; orany information which he knows to be false, but for the purpose of causing annoyance, inconvenience, danger, obstruction, insult, injury, criminal intimidation, enmity, hatred, or ill will, persistently makes by making use of such computer resource or a communication device;any electronic mail or electronic mail message for the purpose of causing annoyance or inconvenience or to deceive or to mislead the addressee or recipient about the origin of such messages (Inserted vide ITAA 2008) shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years and with fine.Explanation: For the purposes of this section, terms "Electronic mail" and "Electronic Mail Message" means a message or information created or transmitted or received on a computer, computer system, computer resource or communication device including attachments in text, image, audio, video and any other electronic record, which may be transmitted with the message.[Section 66 B] [Punishment for dishonestly receiving stolen computer resource or communication device] (Inserted Vide ITA 2008):Whoever dishonestly receives or retains any stolen computer resource or communication device knowing or having reason to believe the same to be stolen computer resource or communication device, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to three years or with fine which may extend to rupees one lakh or with both.[Section 66C] [Punishment for identity theft] (Inserted Vide ITA 2008):Whoever, fraudulently or dishonestly make use of the electronic signature, password or any other unique identification feature of any other person, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to three years and shall also be liable to fine which may extend to rupees one lakh.[Section 66D] [Punishment for cheating by personation by using computer resource] (Inserted Vide ITA 2008):Whoever, by means of any communication device or computer resource cheats by personation, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to three years and shall also be liable to fine which may extend to one lakh rupees.[Section 66E] [Punishment for violation of privacy] (Inserted Vide ITA 2008):Whoever, intentionally or knowingly captures, publishes or transmits the image of a private area of any person without his or her consent, under circumstances violating the privacy of that person, shall be punished with imprisonment which may extend to three years or with fine not exceeding two lakh rupees, or with bothExplanation - For the purposes of this section--“transmit” means to electronically send a visual image with the intent that it be viewed by a person or persons;“capture”, with respect to an image, means to videotape, photograph, film or record by any means;“private area” means the naked or undergarment clad genitals, pubic area, buttocks or female breast;“publishes” means reproduction in the printed or electronic form and making it available for public;“under circumstances violating privacy” means circumstances in which a person can have a reasonable expectation that:he or she could disrobe in privacy, without being concerned that an image of his private area was being captured; orany part of his or her private area would not be visible to the public, regardless of whether that person is in a public or private place.[Section 66F] [Punishment for cyber terrorism]:(1) Whoever,-(A) with intent to threaten the unity, integrity, security or sovereignty of India or to strike terror in the people or any section of the people by –denying or cause the denial of access to any person authorized to access computer resource; or attempting to penetrate or access a computer resource without authorisation or exceeding authorized access; orintroducing or causing to introduce any Computer Contaminant and by means of such conduct causes or is likely to cause death or injuries to persons or damage to or destruction of property or disrupts or knowing that it is likely to cause damage or disruption of supplies or services essential to the life of the community or adversely affect the critical information infrastructure specified under section 70, or(B) knowingly or intentionally penetrates or accesses a computer resource without authorization or exceeding authorized access, and by means of such conduct obtains access to information, data or computer database that is restricted for reasons of the security of the State or foreign relations; or any restricted information, data or computer database, with reasons to believe that such information, data or computer database so obtained may be used to cause or likely to cause injury to the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence, or to the advantage of any foreign nation, group of individuals or otherwise, commits the offence of cyber terrorism.(2) Whoever commits or conspires to commit cyber terrorism shall be punishable with imprisonment which may extend to imprisonment for life’.Critique: We find the terminology in multiple sections too vague to ensure consistent and fair enforcement. The concepts of ‘annoyance’ and ‘insult’ are subjective. Clause (d) makes it clear that phishing requests are not permitted, but it is not clear that one cannot ask for information on a class of individuals.Section 67 [Publishing of information which is obscene in electronic form] amended vide Information Technology Amendment Act 2008 reads as under:Whoever publishes or transmits or causes to be published in the electronic form, any material which is lascivious or appeals to the prurient interest or if its effect is such as to tend to deprave and corrupt persons who are likely, having regard to all relevant circumstances, to read, see or hear the matter contained or embodied in it, shall be punished on first conviction with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to two three years and with fine which may extend to five lakh rupees and in the event of a second or subsequent conviction with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to five years and also with fine which may extend to ten lakh rupees.[Section 67 A] [Punishment for publishing or transmitting of material containing sexually explicit act, etc. in electronic form] (Inserted vide ITAA 2008):Whoever publishes or transmits or causes to be published or transmitted in the electronic form any material which contains sexually explicit act or conduct shall be punished on first conviction with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to five years and with fine which may extend to ten lakh rupees and in the event of second or subsequent conviction with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to seven years and also with fine which may extend to ten lakh rupees.Exception: This section and section 67 does not extend to any book, pamphlet, paper, writing, drawing, painting, representation or figure in electronic form-the publication of which is proved to be justified as being for the public good on the ground that such book, pamphlet, paper, writing, drawing, painting, representation or figure is in the interest of science, literature, art, or learning or other objects of general concern; orwhich is kept or used bona fide for religious purposes.[Section 67 B] Punishment for publishing or transmitting of material depicting children in sexually explicit act, etc. in electronic form:Whoever,-(a) publishes or transmits or causes to be published or transmitted material in any electronicform which depicts children engaged in sexually explicit act or conduct or(b) creates text or digital images, collects, seeks, browses, downloads, advertises,promotes, exchanges or distributes material in any electronic form depicting children inobscene or indecent or sexually explicit manner or(c) cultivates, entices or induces children to online relationship with one or more children forand on sexually explicit act or in a manner that may offend a reasonable adult on the computer resource or(d) facilitates abusing children online or(e) records in any electronic form own abuse or that of others pertaining to sexually explicit act with children, shall be punished on first conviction with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to five years and with a fine which may extend to ten lakh rupees and in the event of second or subsequent conviction with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to seven years and also with fine which may extend to ten lakh rupees:Provided that the provisions of section 67, section 67A and this section does not extend to any book, pamphlet, paper, writing, drawing, painting, representation or figure in electronic form-(i) The publication of which is proved to be justified as being for the public good on the ground that such book, pamphlet, paper writing, drawing, painting, representation or figure is in the interest of science, literature, art or learning or other objects of general concern; or(ii) which is kept or used for bonafide heritage or religious purposes Explanation: For the purposes of this section, "children" means a person who has not completed the age of 18 years. [Section 67 C] [Preservation and Retention of information by intermediaries]:(1) Intermediary shall preserve and retain such information as may be specified for such duration and in such manner and format as the Central Government may prescribe.(2) Any intermediary who intentionally or knowingly contravenes the provisions of sub section (1) shall be punished with an imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years and shall also be liable to fine.Critique: This provision adequately protects both the corporate and the citizen in a positive way.Section 69 [Powers to issue directions for interception or monitoring or decryption of any information through any computer resource] amended vide Information Technology Amendment Act 2008 reads as under:(1) Where the central Government or a State Government or any of its officer specially authorized by the Central Government or the State Government, as the case may be, in this behalf may, if is satisfied that it is necessary or expedient to do in the interest of the sovereignty or integrity of India, defense of India, security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States or public order or for preventing incitement to the commission of any cognizable offence relating to above or for investigation of any offence, it may, subject to the provisions of sub-section (2), for reasons to be recorded in writing, by order, direct any agency of the appropriate Government to intercept, monitor or decrypt or cause to beintercepted or monitored or decrypted any information transmitted received or stored through any computer resource.(2) The Procedure and safeguards subject to which such interception or monitoring or decryption may be carried out, shall be such as may be prescribed.(3) The subscriber or intermediary or any person in charge of the computer resource shall, when called upon by any agency which has been directed under sub section (1), extend all facilities and technical assistance to –(a) provide access to or secure access to the computer resource generating, transmitting, receiving or storing such information; or(b) intercept or monitor or decrypt the information, as the case may be; or (c) provide information stored in computer resource.(4) The subscriber or intermediary or any person who fails to assist the agency referred to in sub-section (3) shall be punished with an imprisonment for a term which may extend to seven years and shall also be liable to fine.[ Section 69B] Power to authorize to monitor and collect traffic data or information through any computer resource for Cyber Security:(1) The Central Government may, to enhance Cyber Security and for identification, analysis and prevention of any intrusion or spread of computer contaminant in the country, by notification in the official Gazette, authorize any agency of the Government to monitor and collect traffic data or information generated, transmitted, received or stored in any computer resource.(2) The Intermediary or any person in-charge of the Computer resource shall when called upon by the agency which has been authorized under sub-section (1), provide technical assistance and extend all facilities to such agency to enable online access or to secure and provide online access to the computer resource generating, transmitting, receiving or storing such traffic data or information.(3) The procedure and safeguards for monitoring and collecting traffic data or information, shall be such as may be prescribed.(4) Any intermediary who intentionally or knowingly contravenes the provisions of subsection(2) shall be punished with an imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years and shall also be liable to fine.Explanation: For the purposes of this section,(i) "Computer Contaminant" shall have the meaning assigned to it in section 43(ii) "traffic data" means any data identifying or purporting to identify any person, computer system or computer network or location to or from which the communication is or may be transmitted and includes communications origin, destination, route, time, date, size, duration or type of underlying service or any other information.Critique: Though we recognize how important it is for a government to protect its citizens against cyberterrorism, we are concerned at the friction between these provisions and the guarantees of free dialog, debate, and free speech that are Fundamental Rights under the Constitution of India.Specifically:a) there is no clear provision of a link between an intermediary and the information or resource that is to be monitored.c)the penalties laid out in the clause are believed to be too harsh, and when read in conjunction with provision 66, there is no distinction between minor offenses and serious offenses.e) the ITA is too broad in its categorization of acts of cyberterrorism by including information that is likely to cause: injury to decency, injury to morality, injury in relation to contempt of court, and injury in relation to defamation.Section 72 [BsignNow of confidentiality and privacy] amended vide Information Technology Amendment Act 2008 reads as under:Save as otherwise provided in this Act or any other law for the time being in force, any person who, in pursuant of any of the powers conferred under this Act, rules or regulations made there under, has secured access to any electronic record, book, register, correspondence, information, document or other material without the consent of the person concerned discloses such electronic record, book, register, correspondence, information, document or other material to any other person shall be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years, or with fine which may extend to one lakh rupees, or with both. [Section 72 A] Punishment for Disclosure of information in bsignNow of lawful contract (Inserted vide ITAA-2008):Save as otherwise provided in this Act or any other law for the time being in force, any person including an intermediary who, while providing services under the terms of lawful contract, has secured access to any material containing personal information about another person, with the intent to cause or knowing that he is likely to cause wrongful loss or wrongful gain discloses, without the consent of the person concerned, or in bsignNow of a lawful contract, such material to any other person shall be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years, or with a fine which may extend to five lakh rupees, or with both.General Notes and Critiques:As general notes on the ITA and data protection we find that the Act is lacking in many ways, including:there is no definition of “sensitive personal data or information” and that term is used indiscriminately without.the provisions and protections cover only electronic data and not stored data or non-electronic systems of mediain the absence of a data controller, liability is often imposed on persons who are not necessarily in a position to control datacivil liability for data bsignNow arises where negligence is involvedcriminal liability only applies to cases of information obtained in the context of a service contract.**I am neither a student of law nor attached in any way to the legal system. This is excerpted from Cybercrime and Privacy and merely reproduced here for the sake of convenience.
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What opportunities are in an RSCIT course?,6289+03=7952
RS-CIT (Rajasthan State Certificate Course in Information Technology)RS-CIT - Rajasthan State Certificate course in Information Technology has been approved by Deptt. of Information Technology and Communication, Govt. of Rajasthan.About the RS-CIT programme : To remove the fear of IT, RKCL has launched an IT friendly course for the people of Rajasthan.RS-CIT is a high quality and low cost IT literacy program which offers a novel curriculum, excellent study material and learning management system in local languages. A state-of-the-art delivery mechanism leads to online examination and instant e-Certification.Eligibility :Keen desire to learn Computer and Information Technology.Education Qualification: 10th Standard DesirableDuration :Course Duration : 12 Weeks (11 weeks + 1 week of distributed holidays. Examination in the 13th week.)Lecture Hours : 66Lab Hours : 66 (one computer to be shared by a pair of learners)Total Learning Hours : 132; two hours per day.Medium : Hindi & EnglishStudy Material : Highly illustrative book on Computing essentials, Learning Management System Software in the IT Gyan Kendra, in English and Hindi.Fee Structure :The Course Fee includes the charges for the Study Material.Mode Total FeeRegular Rs. 2850/- Options of fee payment are available, but fees is non-refundable and non-transferable.Re examination Fee : Learner should pay Rs.300/- to IT Gyan Kendra, to whom she/he has registered within stipulated time.Note : A foresaid amount of Rs. 300/- does not include Training or any other services except allowing the Learner to reappear for one specific re-exam event.An applicant can appear any number of times if the curriculum remains unchanged by paying examination fee separately for each examination.How to Apply :The admission process will be web-based. The learner should fill in an application form available at the local centre, using RS-CIT Application Software. The software generates a receipt for the fees.Admission Process :Learner approaches the centre or centre`s representative approaches the learner for admission to RS-CIT course. Course brochure will be offered to learner.Using RS-CIT application Software, learner`s information will be filled in the web based application form.(or paper application form is filled by the learner and entered in the web and uploaded in batch mode by centre).If the learner does not possess an email ID, the centre helps him to obtain the same to be entered into the online application form.Centre scans the learners photograph and signature or takes his photo by digital camera / web cam and attached to his application form on the web. This is essential for examination.
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