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FAQs
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What are the best features of Microsoft Office 365?
Here’s a breakdown of some awesome Features Office 3651. Work Smarter, EverywhereAfter buying Office 365, you also gain access to its accompanying mobile apps and browser apps. This allows you to access their cloud service from any up to date web browser on your desktop or mobile device. Even better yet, you don’t have to install Office software on your computer to do this.The mobile app allows you to access all of your Office 365 subscriptions and Office products right from your smartphone or tablet; this includes Word, Excel, Powerpoint, Onenote, and more. Cut the cord and stop working on your PC only — download the Microsoft Office 365 mobile app to stay productive, even while on the go.2. Enjoy 50 GB of StorageEach Office 365 user receives a whopping 50 GB of storage with Exchange Online; this can be used to save emails, calendar events, task lists, meeting notes, contact information, and email attachments.You can save some more space in your mailbox by utilizing the OneDrive cloud storage feature to share attachments.Your OneDrive storage is also synced to your device, enabling you to work offline on files. As soon as you reconnect to the web, the newest versions of your documents will be automatically uploaded to your cloud storage. The new versions of your documents will also be sent to any other connected device, including your phone or tablet — nifty!3. Edit Documents with Real-Time Co-AuthoringCollaborate online and see changes your team makes to shared documents within your Office apps as they happen with the real-time co-authoring feature in Word. Save your file to OneDrive cloud storage or SharePoint so your team can access the document and make any necessary edits or updates. You can also share it directly from Word by utilizing a handily integrated sidebar. As the publisher and access-giver, you can edit accessibility settings at any time.With the improved version control that was rolled out with Office 2016 co-authoring, you can see which changes to the document were made by which contributor and when the update was made. You can also easily revert back to a previous version of the file whenever you need to.4. Connect with Co-WorkersYou may not have known this, but Office apps include a Skype in-app integration. You can use this feature to instant message your teammates, share your screen during meetings and have audio or visual conversations — without even exiting the Office apps you’re working in. You can continue Skype conversations even after you close your office apps via your desktop or mobile version of Skype. The best part? Your team will receive unlimited Skype minutes.Source: Microsoft5. Send Links, Not FilesIt’s time to move away from email attachments. It’s never been easier to share documents for co-authoring!Simply upload your file to Office 365’s cloud storage. Then, write your email via Outlook or the Outlook web app. Rather than attaching your document to the email, you can insert a link to the file on your cloud. Outlook will automatically allow email recipients to edit the document you wish to share. You can always change permissions on any document at your convenience.6. Convert OneNote Items into Outlook Calendar EventsEasily configure OneNote items to tasks within your Outlook calendar. You can also assign tasks to colleagues, complete with follow-up reminders and concise due dates. You can also transfer meeting notes taken in OneNote via email to your teammates, and add important details (date, location, and attendees) to their respective meeting.7. Use Your Mouse as a Laser Pointer during PowerPoint PresentationsWith only a simple keyboard shortcut (Ctrl + P), your mouse can be used as a laser pointer during your PowerPoint presentations. You can also use the “presenter mode” commands while using this feature.The laser pointer tool has been a nifty trick within older versions of the office apps for years; however, it was only recently integrated for touch-screen devices. All you have to do is hold down on your device’s screen, and the laser pointer will appear.8. Create a Power Map Using ExcelTurn data into a 3-D interactive map with Power Map, one of the many Power BI-enhanced data visualization features that Excel has to offer. It comes with three different filters: List, Range, or Advanced. The Power Map will help you not only convey your data more effectively, but also support your claims by creating a tangible story from the numbers.
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What are some must have Android apps?
Edit: I wrote this answer for “must have Android apps” but these are same apps which have changed the way I used to live my life. Each and every App has helped me in one or the other way. I hope you will also find them helpful and a bit life changing. So here is the list: 10. Psiphon For those who use WiFi with proxy settings. So Psiphon bypasses and tunnel the websites or app through a different IP Address. 9. Mirror It's a simple app to record your mobile screen. Based on the concept of CamStudio in PC where you can record your screen, Mirror offers recording of your Mobile screen. 8. NTES- National Train Enquiry System If you are from India and you want to know the running status, cancelled train (partial or fully), Live Station and other features, this App is a must have. 7. VOLT Simple but effective for those who want to learn new vocabulary. That's too obvious, then why not others? Coz here you get the “memory key” which helps you relate the words and easier to remember them. 6. Parchi It a note making app. But here’s a catch. You can view, review, edit and add right from your lockscreen without need to open the app. Isn't that amazing! I personally find this app very useful. 5. edX If you are student or a learner who wants learn something new everyday, and cannot afford to go in the prestigious institutions like MIT, Harvard University, Cambridge, IITM, etc ten it is a must have app. Enroll yourself in any course and Bazinga!! You are ready to learn from the most amazing professors. Similar to edX, we have Coursera. 4. Walnut Manage your expenses on your finger tips. Its easier then that. It shows you your monthly expenditure, ATM locations, bill remainders and many more features. Its a must have app. 3. CamScanner Everyone doesn’t own a scanner but most of us have camera. So click the pic, upload to CamScanner and voila you are done. You have the scanned copy of your documents, notes, Marksheet and upload them on your DigiLocker. 2. inshorts Till now you all must be knowing this app. The tagline is also simple “News in 60 words” and trust me it is worth having. In this “I don't have time” world, you need news to be fast and accurate so here it is. 1. DigiLocker If you have this app then you don’t need to carry your personal documents like driving license, Adhar card, voter ID card, or even your Marksheets. Keep them safe in actual locker and leave the rest to your DigiLocker. And the best part is that it is acceptable as the original ones at every governmental or non governmental institution because it is developed under Digital India initiative. That's it for the day. Thank you and Enjoy !!! Update 1: Today I came across two new apps which I found useful. Hope it would help you all. 1.Forest : Stay focused Features • A self-motivated and interesting way to help you beat phone addiction • Stay focused and get more things done • Share your forest and compete with friends • Track your history in a simple and pleasant way • Earn reward and unlock more tree species • Customize your whitelist : Leaving Forest and using apps in whitelist won’t kill your tree. 2. Swachh Bharat Toilet Locator Swachh Bharat Toilet Locator is specifically useful for Indians who're committed for Swachh Bharat. Update 2: So I am back with yet another interesting app for you all. And trust me it is worth hanving. You are bored just go through it and kaboooom !!! You are into a black hole. Enjoy the ride. 3. Curiosity It is the latest app I installed but got addicted to it. It’s exactly works like its name, generates a curiosity which inturn increases your knowledge. It covers a large field of scope from Humanity to science to faith and many more. This app deserves more snapshots but why to increase the length of my answer. Comment below if you think the list should be updated? Thank you.
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What are the documents required for registration of a Private Limited Company in India?
Documents required for Incorporating your Private Limited Company:I) Documentation Required For Shareholders and DirectorsNote: If you have an Aadhaar Card which is linked to a mobile number then you can skip point 1 below as we will issue you a digital signature through a paperless process!Signed Digital Signature Form.2 copies of Bank Manager or Post Master Attested AND Self Attested PAN Card.2 copies Bank Manager or Post Master Attested AND Self Attested ID Proof (Any one of the following- Aadhaar Card, Passport, Election Card or Driving License)2 copies Bank Manager or Post Master Attested AND Self Attested Address Proof (Any one of the following- Aadhaar Card , Bank Statement, Electricity Bill, Telephone Bill or Mobile Bill ) (Should not be older than 2 months)Passport size photoII) For Registering Office Address (Note: You can start company from a Residential Address as well)IF the Premises IS taken on Lease by the Company.Scanned Copy of Lease Deed/Rent Agreement.Scanned copy of any one of the Latest Electricity Bill/Telephone Bill/Gas Bill.Scanned copy of the Self attested Signature Proof of the Owner. (Any one of Passport, PAN, Driving License, Voter ID Card) (To be provided only if agreement is not registered)2) IF the Premises IS NOT taken on Lease by the Company.Scanned copy Letter of Consent from the Owner of the Premises (Format will be sent to you once you scan and send the electricity bill)Scanned copy of any one of the Latest Electricity Bill/Telephone Bill/Gas Bill.Scanned copy of the Self attested Signature Proof of the Owner giving the Consent (Passport, PAN, Driving License, Voter ID Card)III) For IncorporationScanned Form INC-9. Note: Form INC-9 has to be printed on a Rs 100/- stamp paper and has to be signNowd by YOUScanned Copy of Form DIR-2One can now Incorporate his / her Private Limited Company / LLP for FREE! Contact us for any support and further details.
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What is the birthday gift I can give to my best friend who is a bibliophile?
How about one of these?An Annotated Bibliography of Typography, Letterpress Printing and Other Arts of the Bookby David S. Rose • Five Roses PressThe explosion of desktop-based, digital pre-press technology at the end of the twentieth century brought to a wide audience the previously specialized world of typography. Modern type design applications give users the ability to create new digital typefaces from the imagination, to recreate classic faces that are otherwise unavailable in digital form, and to adapt existing faces for specific needs.For those artisans who still hand-set and print with traditional letterpress technology, a dozen type foundries continue to provide a constant stream of classic metal faces. And for designers who combine the two worlds by printing letterpress from photopolymer plates, the options are unlimited.As with any powerful tools, the more one knows of the history behind them, the better able one will be to utilize them. The books listed here are just a few of hundreds that have been written on the subject of typography over three centuries, but they will provide a solid start for reading in this area.While many of the works listed are classics in the field, not all of them are currently in print. Those that are not available from the publisher (or from reprint houses such as Dover Publications) may often be found at antiquarian dealers who specialize in the field of Books about Books. A number of such dealers are listed at the end of this bibliography, and the rapid adoption of the Internet by antiquarian book dealers now means that most of these books are a simple click away. Overviews of Printing TypesPrinting Types: An Introduction by Alexander Lawson with Dwight Agner [Boston: Beacon Press, 1990] is a short (120 pages) easy-to-read overview that is exactly as advertised: an introduction. For over thirty years, Lawson has taught a course in the history of printing types at the Rochester Institute of Technology School of Printing, and this book grew out of his need for a simple handbook on the subject for his students. It is a well designed and illustrated inexpensive paperback, and would probably be your best bet if you have a casual interest in the subject and only want to read one book. The latest edition, brought current through 1990, covers electronic typography as well.Printing Types: Their History, Forms, and Use by Daniel Berkeley Updike (1860-1941) [New York: Dover, 1980 reprint of the second (1937) edition]. This is the classic work in the field of typographic history. Updike was a leader in the revival of traditional printing typefaces in the United States, and was the founder of the Merrymount Press (1893). A series of lectures he gave at Harvard from 1910-1917 served as the basis for Printing Types, which was first published in 1922. This Dover reprint is in two volumes, 618 pages of text plus 300 unnumbered illustrations. As Dover says in the jacket notes, "Printing Types presents the standards, the landmarks in typography that anyone connected with printing must know. In its mammoth, illustrated coverage, it is without a doubt the definitive guide to the subject.Letters of Credit: A View of Type Design by Walter Tracy [Boston: David Godine, 1986. 224 p, ill.] A beautiful and profusely illustrated step-by-step demonstration of type-design aesthetics that traces the beginnings and the path of modern-day typesetting.Fine print on type; the best of Fine print magazine on type and typography by Charles A. Bigelow, Paul Hayden Duensing, Linnea Gentry [San Francisco: Fine Print: Bedford Arts, 1988] is an excellent selection of articles from Fine Print magazine, the late indispensable periodical with which anyone concerned with type should be familiar. Each issue was designed by a different typographer, printed by letterpress and included scholarly articles, typographic overviews, reviews, and notices of new books on typography. Fine Print was published quarterly through about 1990, after which the publication led cliff-hanging existence as various groups and institutions tried to save it. While long gone, a final retrospective index is currently nearing production, and will also be a must-get.Typographical periodicals between the wars; a critique of the Fleuron, Signature, and Typography by Grant Shipcott [Oxford: Oxford Polytechnic Press, 1980. xiv, 111 p. :ill.]. These classic periodicals (particularly the Fleuron) were to their time what Fine Print was to typography and book design today, but because of the ferment in the world of design during the 20s and 30s and because of their illustrious contributors, they had a much greater effect on the typography of the time.Type and Typefaces by J. Ben Lieberman [New Rochelle: The Myriade Press, 1978] is an alternative to the Lawson book, but rather less accurate, bigger (142 pages, 8 1/2 x 11, hardcover) and harder to find. Ben Lieberman was an enthusiastic amateur printer and the father of the American Chappel movement of hobby printers. This book is an exuberant look at the history, classification, identification, and personalities of typography. It includes examples of over 1,000 type faces, and is well illustrated. Lieberman was not a scholar, but if you like unabashed 'boosterism,' you might find this book fun to read, despite its errors of both omission and commission.History and Development of Lettering and Letter formsThe 26 Letters by Oscar Ogg [New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1948]. A nicely done book by a well known American calligrapher, tracing the evolution of the alphabet from prehistoric times to the invention of printing. 250 pages, well illustrated.Letters by James Hutchinson [New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983]. A stylishly designed, very readable history of alphabets, writing, and printing types.The History and Technique of Lettering by Alexander Nesbitt [New York: Dover Publications, 1957]. A thorough history of type design from its origin through the mid-twentieth century, this book covers some of the same material as the Ogg book, but includes much more information on the development of letter forms since the invention of printing. It is written from an artist's perspective, and has a how-to section on lettering.The Alphabet and Elements of Lettering by Frederic W. Goudy [New York: Dover Publications, 1963. Reprint of 1952 University of California edition]. This falls somewhere between the Ogg and Nesbitt books, from Goudy's unique perspective as the most prolific type designer of the twentieth century.Roman Lettering by L.C. Evetts [New York: Taplinger, 1979] includes a character-by-character analysis of the letters on Trajans Column in Rome, which have served for centuries as one of the foundations of roman (serif) letter design. Evetts also includes charts showing the evolution of the roman alphabet through the centuries. Handsome lettering, with little text to clutter the presentation.An ABC Book: ABC of Lettering and Printing Types by Erik Lindegren [New York: Pentalic, nd ca. 1976]. A survey of type, calligraphy, and design, with examples of work from all periods, with an especially strong representation of lettering by Swedish, English, German, and American scribes and designers. A lively, well-designed introduction to letters.Writing, Illuminating and Lettering by Edward Johnston [New York: Taplinger, 1980]. The comprehensive calligraphy manual by the man who led the twentieth century revival of calligraphy. Johnston's influence on English, American and German lettering and design was immense.History of Lettering by Nicolete Gray [Boston: David Godine, 1987. 256 p].Type Designs from Various PeriodsArt of the Printed Book, 1455-1955; masterpieces of typography through five centuries from the collections of the Pierpont Morgan Library, New York by Joseph Blumenthal, (1897- ) [New York: Pierpont Morgan Library; 1984. Boston, MA: D.R. Godine, xiv, 192 p. : ill.]. Available both in hardcover and paperback, this collection by one of the great printer/scholars of the century is a must have for anyone interested in original source material. More than a hundred full pages facsimiles from the Morgan Library provide an instant overview of the development of typographic design from Gutenberg to the mid-twentieth century.Anatomy of a Typeface by Alexander Lawson [Boston: David R. Godine, 1990, 428 pages] A great book from one of the leading typographic experts of the late twentieth century, this substantial work examines a wide variety of typefaces in great detail, and explains why they look the way they do. An excellent reference work for the designer and printer that will both improve your eye for the detail of font design and inform the choices you will make in specifying and setting type yourself.Selected Essays on Books and Printing by A. F. Johnson [Amsterdam: Van Gendt, 1970]. Johnson was a scholar at the British Museum, and along with Daniel Berkeley Updike and Stanley Morrison was considered one of the experts in the field of typographic history. This lovely, massive (500 pages), and very expensive collection of some of his writings from 1927-1957 concentrates primarily on the typographic work of sixteenth century calligraphers and printers.A view of early typography up to about 1600 by Harry Carter [(The Lyell lectures 1968) Oxford, Clarendon P., 1969. xii, 137 p. 45 plates. illus., facsims., col. map].A history of the old English letter foundries; with notes, historical and bibliographical, on the rise and fall of English typography by Talbot Baines Reed, 1852-1893 and A. F. Johnson [Folkestone: Dawsons, Reissued 1974 xiv, 400 p., fold. leaf : ill., facsims].Notes on a Century of Typography at the University Press, Oxford, 1693-1794 by Horace Hart [Oxford, Clarendon Press, Reissued 1970 (1st ed. of 1900 reprinted) with an introduction and additional notes by Harry Carter. ix, 16, xvi, 203 p., plate. illus. facsims]. History of the types and typography of the Oxford University Press, generally regarded as the preeminent scholarly press in the western world.Nineteenth Century Ornamented Type Faces by Nicolete Gray [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976]. Reprint of a classic from 1938, this large format 240 page work is the definitive book on its subject.American Wood Type, 1828-1900 by Rob Roy Kelly [New York: Da Capo Press]. Notes on the evolution of decorated and large wood types, and comments on related trades. As with the Nicolete Gray book, this is the definitive work in its field. The book was issued in several editions, of which this (paperback) is the least expensive.The Typographic Book 1450-1935 by Stanley Morrison and Kenneth Day [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963]. A lush, expensive, visual treasury of almost 500 years of typography, including 357 plates.American typography today by Rob Carter [(New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1989. 159 p. : ill. (some col.)].The Liberated Page Edited by Herbert Spencer [San Francisco: Bedford Arts, 1987]. An anthology of the major typographic experiments of the 20th century, as recorded in Typographica magazine.TypographyA Typographic Workbook: A Primer to History, Techniques, and Artistry by Kate Clair. A good place to start for a basic grounding in typographic design.The Elements of Typographic Style by Robert Bringhurst. A highly acclaimed, although somewhat more advanced, standard work in the field.The Crystal Goblet; sixteen essays on typography by Beatrice Warde [Cleveland and New York: World Publishing Company, 1956]. From a major woman in the field of typography come some thought-provoking pieces, including the famous analogy that gave the collection its name. Mandatory reading for would-be typographers.The Case for Legibility by John Ryder [London: The Bodley Head, 1979] "Not a typographer's manual nor a 'do-it-yourself' guide to book design, it is a personal statement of great sincerity and conviction by a distinguished practitioner of the art." Ryder also wrote “Printing For Pleasure”, one of the touchstones of the avocational letterpress printing movement.Better Type by Betty Binns [New York: Watson-Guptill, 1989. 192 p]. A trade book from the early days of the desktop publishing revolution that shows by copious examples the subtle differences in relationships between typefaces, letters, and spaces. From the preface: "This book systematically trains designers to make these fine discriminations, with the aim of specifying text type that is not only readable, but also beautiful and expressive." Only released in this one edition, and not readily available, but a nice book nevertheless.Introduction to Typography by Oliver Simon [London: Faber & Faber, 1945]. Not a bad place to start. This edition is out of print, but there has been at least one reprint in recent years. Simon's introduction is designed for the layman, and discusses many of the basic principles and theories of designing with type.First Principles of Typography by Stanley Morrison [Cambridge: at the University Press, 1951]. An important book from the man who designed Times Roman for the London Times.Asymmetric typography by Jan Tschichold [(Translated by Ruari McLean) New York, Reinhold Pub. Corp. 1967. 94 p. illus. (part col.) facsims]. Jan Tschichold (1902-1974), a well-known typographer, caused many people to rethink 'conventional' theories of typography when this seminal work was published in the mid-60s. Whether or not you agree with his approach, this book is required reading and will widen your typographic horizons.An essay on typography by Eric Gill [1st U.S. ed. Boston: D.R. Godine, 1988]. A classic typographic manifesto on the art and craft of letterforms from the designer of Gill Sans and the famous typography of London Underground.Typography, A Manual of Design by Emil Ruder [Niederteufen, Switzerland: Arthur Niggli Ltd, 1977. 3rd Edition]. A fascinating, disciplined, and very Swiss analysis of typography and letterforms. Ruder's discussion and illustration of the importance of white space in letter forms and graphic designs is excellent background reading.Report on the typography of the Cambridge University Press by Bruce Rogers [Cambridge, Cambridgeshire: University Printer, 1950. viii, 32, (3) p. : ill.]. Bruce Rogers (1870-1957) is regarded by many as having been the greatest typographer and book designer of the twentieth century. After World War II he was commissioned by the Cambridge University Press to undertake a thorough review of all of the Press' publications and standards. The resulting Report had a major impact not only on the C.U.P., but also on the general typographic theory in both Britain and the U.S.Designing with type; a basic course in typography by James Craig and Susan E. Meyer [Fourth. ed. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1999. 176 p]. A modern 'how-to' book, often used as the primary textbook in college design courses, that is available at many large bookstores and graphic arts dealers.Finer Points in the spacing & arrangement of Type by Geoffrey Dowding.Book DesignMethods of Book Design: The Practice of an Industrial Craft by Hugh Williamson. An excellent book, not only for the author's typographical observations, but also as a comprehensive survey of printing at the height of letterpress.The Design of Books by Adrian Wilson. A classic on the design, layout, and typography of traditional pages and books, written by a great letterpress printer in 1967. Bookmaking: Editing, Design and Production by Marshall Lee Originally written primarily about letterpress in 1965, this 500+ page work has recently been re-issued in a greatly updated third edition for the computer era.Printing Poetry: A workbook in typographic reification by Clifford Burke. A very informative work on this subject that also applies to other letterpress printing. Issued in an edition of only 1000.Type DesignersTwentieth Century Type Designers by Sebastian Carter [New York: Taplinger Publishing Company, 1987]. An excellent look at the people behind the type faces, with in-depth profiles of designers such as Goudy, Morrison, Zapf, etc.Typologia; studies in type design & type making, with comments on the invention of typography, the first types, legibility, and fine printing by Frederic W. Goudy (1865-1947). [Reissued 1977. Berkeley: University of California Press, xviii, 170 p.: ill.; 24 cm.]. Written by the most prolific type designer of the 20th century [creator of, among others, the eponymous Goudy Oldstyle], this reprint of the 1940 edition discusses the history, function, and meaning of type, and gives some very good insights into how a type designer works.Jan Tschichold: typographer by Ruari McLean [Boston: David R. Godine, 1975]. This puts Tschichold's career and writings in the context of developments in society around him. It is informative and thought-provoking on its own, and serves as useful background to his writings on the subject.Manuale Typographicum; 100 typographical arrangements with considerations about types, typography and the art of printing selected from past and present, printed in eighteen languages by Herman Zapf [Frankfurt, New York: Z-Presse, 1968]. Herman Zapf is known to most desktop typographers primarily for giving his name to the Zapf Dingbat font. He is, in addition, one of the most respected and creative typographers and type designers of the century, who created not only the Dingbat and Zapf Chancery fonts, but also Optima and many other faces. Manuale Typographicum is a breathtaking 'tour de force,' consisting of 100 broadsides about type design in a wide variety of faces and styles. Superb as a source of inspiration and example.Herman Zapf and His Design Philosophy by Herman Zapf, Introduction by Carl Zahn [New Haven: Yale University Press, 90 color plates]. While the Manuale shows the master at work, this volume is a discourse on Zapf's insights into type design. An excellent book.Edward Johnston by Priscilla Johnston [New York: Pentallic, 1976]. This biography of the twentieth century's most important calligrapher, written by his daughter, traces his career and influence. Unlike many printing books, this one is a delightful read.Of the Just Shaping of Letters by Albrecht Dürer [New York: Dover Publications, 1965. (reprint of the Grolier Club translation of 1917)]. Originally part of Dürer's theoretical treatise on applied geometry, here is the source for those famous capital letters set against a gridded background.Champ Fleury by Geoffrey Tory, translated into English and annotated by George B. Ives [New York: Dover Publications, 1967. (reprint of the Grolier Club translation of 1927)]. The other famous humanistic alphabet similar to the one discussed in the Dürer book, but this is the one with the letters shown against naked human bodies in addition to the grid system.Pioneers of modern typography by Herbert Spencer [Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1983. Rev. ed. 160 p. : ill.].Typeface Reference WorksAmerican Metal Typefaces of the Twentieth Century by Mac McGrew [New Castle, Delaware: Oak Knoll Books, 1994, 2nd rev, ed. 376 p. : ill]. The definitive work on the subject, and an essential reference for both graphic designers and current letterpress printers. Currently in print from the publisher.The Encyclopedia of Type Faces, 4th Edition by W. Pincus Jaspert, W. Turner Berry, and A. F. Johnson [Poole, Dorset: Blandford Press, 1983]. A standard, comprehensive reference in the field, this work is a detailed listing of over 1,000 faces, arranged by name, with full information on their history, designers, etc. Although even after several editions it has numerous uncorrected errors (dates, foundries, names, even occasionally an incorrect specimen shown) it is still a required reference work on the subject.A.T.A. Type Comparison Book by Frank Merriman [Advertising Typographers Association of America, 1965]. An indispensable handbook for identifying typefaces. Hundreds of faces are grouped together by design, making it easy to find the one you want. Still in print, possibly in a more recent edition.Graphics Master 7: Workbook of reference guides & Graphic Tools for the Design, Preparation & Production Print and Internet Publishing by Dean Phillip Lem [Los Angeles, Calif.: D. Lem Associates, 2000. 7th ed. 158 p. : ill. (some col.)]. Although it covers much more than just type design, and is fairly expensive, this is one of the most important and continually useful reference work that a desktop designer and/or publisher should have.Font & Function [Mountain View, California: signNow Systems] was signNow's biennial catalog of their latest font offerings. But this tabloid size, four-color publication was also quite a bit more. It included articles on typographic history, the background to many signNow PostScript fonts, technical information and a graphic listing of over 1500 signNow fonts. While it is no longer being published, back issues are available from a number of sources.The typEncyclopedia; a user's guide to better typography by Frank J Romano [New York: R.R. Bowker Co., 1984. xii, 188 p. : ill.].Type and typography; the designer's type book by Ben Rosen [New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1976 Rev. ed. 406 p. : ill.].History of PrintingA Short History of the Printed Word by Warren Chappell [Boston: Nonpareil Books (David Godine), 1980]. A once-over-very-lightly in 240 pages of large type, hitting the highlights in the development of type, printing and bookmaking.Five Hundred Years of Printing by S. H. Steinberg [Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1974]. A 400-page small-print paperback which is still in print, this covers Gutenberg through the early 20th century. Steinberg's style is a little dry. Since his death, the book (starting with the third edition) has been edited by James Moran.A Dictionary of Book History by John Feather [New York: Oxford University Press, 1986, 278 pp] is a concise one-stop reference, in alphabetical order, to topics including bibliography and bibliographical terminology, the history of printing, the physical history of the book (including typography, binding, etc.) and book collecting. It has over 650 articles ranging from a few lines to several pages, and covers the ground pretty thoroughly. Although not a classic work (and, indeed, poorly designed itself as a book), it serves as a very handy reference to the history of books. An expensive purchase at the original price of $45, it is often available on remainder for about $10.The Making of Books by Seán Jennett [New York and Washington: Frederick A. Preager, 1967]. A good overview of the entire art and craft of the book, including a little history and a fairly detailed examination of every stage of the process. If you are interested in books in general, this is a good place to start. Out of print, but rather ubiquitous at second-hand and antiquarian dealers.The Book: The Story of Printing & Bookmaking by Douglas C. McMurtrie [New York: Oxford University Press, 1943]. Almost 700 pages of large type devoted to the history of the book, by one of the most prolific writers in the field. Easy to read, anecdotal, and illustrated. Although out of print, it is not particularly scarce and, if you can find it, probably the quickest way to get up to speed on printing history.Letterpress Printing InstructionIntroduction to Letterpress Printing by David S. Rose.: [New York: Five Roses Press, 2003, 32pp.] The complete 21st century Getting Started Guide to everything you need to know about acquiring a press, finding supplies, learning to print, and setting up your very own letterpress shop. (Note: this indispensable little reference gets first place on the list because it was written by [ahem] the author of this very bibliography. A fully hyperlinked electronic version with up to date sources can be downloaded from www.fiveroses.org/intro.htm)General Printing by Glen U. Cleeton and Charles W. Pitkin.: [Bloomington, Ill: McKnight & McKnight Publishing Company, 1941-1963, 195pp.] Probably the best all-around introductory book for traditional letterpress printing, this manual is profusely illustrated with detailed and useful photographs. It is the one most recommended on the Letpress list, and several members personally knew the authors. Copies of the book are readily available in both paperback and hardcover.The Practice of Printing by Ralph W. Polk (in later editions, together with Edwin W. Polk) [Peoria, Illinois: The Manual Arts Press, 1937-1945; later editions Charles A. Bennett & Co., 1952-1964, 300+ pp]. The most ubiquitous letterpress printing manual of the twentieth century. This is the standard, in print for over 40 years, from which many current letterpress printers first learned in school print shop classes, and is a good basic reference for the letterpress printer. Although out of print, it is readily available, in one or another of its many editions, from most book arts dealers and online sources. In later years, it was distributed by the Kelsey Co. as the advanced printing manual for their mass-market presses. By 1971 it was updated to de-emphasize handset type, and was re-issued as "The Practice of Printing: Letterpress & Offset". If you are primarily interested in letterpress printing, try to get one of the earlier editions.Platen Press Operation by George J. Mills [Pittsburgh, Carnegie Institute of Technology, 1953, 150 p. illus.] This manual is the first choice of letterpress cognoscenti who are printing on platen presses, and serves as the missing "owner’s manual" for traditional platen presses such as Chandler & Price, Gordon, Pearl and other floor-mounted job presses. It should be read in conjunction with one of the above books, which provide more thorough coverage of hand type-setting and composition. This invaluable book is still available, in a reprint of the 1959 edition, from NA Graphics.Printing Digital Type on the Hand-Operated Flatbed Cylinder Press by Gerald Lange (Second Edition). California: Bieler Press, 2001 This is one of the few letterpress manuals currently in print, and the only one specifically addressing both Vandercook proof presses (the gold standard for current fine letterpress printers) and photopolymer plates. This book is the authority on the technologies of "modern" limited edition letterpress printing. Subjects covered include digital type and computer practices; letterpress configuration; photopolymer plates, flat-bases, and processing equipment; photopolymer plate-making; plate registration and travel; impression; cylinder packing and makeready; presswork; ink and inking; press operation and maintenance, as well as an updated listing of manufacturers and distributors. Newly included with this edition are troubleshooting guides to problems encountered during the processing and printing of photopolymer plates.Printing on the Iron Handpress by Richard-Gabriel Rummonds is the most comprehensive book ever published on the subject, and is still in print from Oak Knoll Press. (Note that "handpress" here means something specific when it comes to letterpress printing, and doesn't refer to ordinary hand-operated presses such as a Kelsey or a Pilot.) Precise techniques for printing on the handpress are presented in lucid, step-by-step procedures that Rummonds perfected over a period of almost twenty-five years at his celebrated Plain Wrapper Press and Ex Ophidia. In tandem with more than 400 detailed diagrams by George Laws, Rummonds describes every procedure a printer needs to know from setting up a handpress studio to preparing books for the binder. The author also maintains a constantly updated web-site to accompany the book.Printing for Pleasure, A Practical Guide for Amateurs by John Ryder [published in multiple editions from 1955-1977, in England and the US, by publishers including Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., (1977) and London: The Bodley Head (1976) This is still in print from The Bodley Head in the UK or Oak Knoll Books in North America]. A lovely, classy, little (12 mo) book, both pleasing to look at and inspirational for the novice amateur printer. This introductory work gives a light overview of the hobby of letterpress printing on both sides of the Atlantic, covering how to choose a press, type, paper and ink, as well as planning, design and production. A good place to start if you are just considering taking up this avocation, and a nice place to come back to every now and then to remind you why you are still printing.A Composition Manual: PIA Tools of Industry Series by Ralph W. Polk, Harry L. Gage et al. [Printing Industries of America 1953, 4to, 311 pp., index, biblio., 433 pps] A really excellent tutorial and reference work, sponsored by the printing industry trade association as the definitive manual for apprentices. It is a thorough overview of the entire typesetting and proofing end of the business that took four years and several experts to write. Because it was published in 1953, it came out just at the inflection point between hot and cold type, and is a fascinating final masterwork from an industry that feels the winds of change approaching. In addition to very detailed and well-illustrated tutorials on hand-setting and proofing metal type, it includes surprisingly useful overviews and illustrations of all the other composition-related tools of the shop, including Elrod, Ludlow and Monotype casters. To quote from the Forward, "The industry recognized the need for a manual containing basic principles of good typography that are fundamental to the presentation of the printed word, irrespective of whether that word is composed by hand, by machine, by photo-typesetting or by some yet unnamed method of the future…"I.T.U. Lessons in Printing [Indianapolis: International Typographical Union, 1927-1972, Various paginations] Published in many editions across half a century, these ten volumes were created by the printing unions as the standardized training course for American printers. While not as elegantly written or produced as many of the other letterpress manuals, these thousands of pages cover just about everything the journeyman printer was supposed to know, eventually encompassing Unit One (Elements of [Letterpress] Composition) through Unit Ten (Photocomposition, Ruling and Pasteup). Along the way is detailed information on topics including Display Composition, Imposition and Lockup, Trade Unionism, Linotype Operation, Design, and even English ("because English is a 'reasoning' subject which may have caused the student difficulty in school."). The first volume, covering the history of printing through typesetting and a proofing, is probably the most useful one for the modern letterpress printer. The original edition of 1927, written by John H. Chambers, was replaced by a much better text in the 50's that was almost certainly ghost-written by Ralph W. Polk, who also wrote the even better manual on behalf of the employers, as well as his own manuals (see above).Printing For School And Shop by Frank S. Henry [New York: John Wiley & Sons 1917, B&W photos and drwgs 318pp] Subtitled "A Textbook for Printers' Apprentices, Continuation classes, and for General Use in Schools" and updated with another edition in 1944, this was the original vocational course textbook which was eventually supplanted for the most part by Polk. Nevertheless, it provides detailed technical instruction and illustrations and—particularly in the later edition—can still serve as a useful learning tool for today's printer.The Essentials of Printing by Frank S. Henry [New York: John Wiley & Sons 1924, B&W drwgs 187pp + index] Subtitled "A Text-book for Beginners" and half the length of the preceding book. "It develops that there is an insistent demand for a shorter text, one that shall cover only the absolute essentials of printing...this volume attempts to present to the novice, in sequence, the operations necessary to the production of a piece of printed matter." Useful and relatively short, but somewhat outdated (even for letterpress!)Printing as a Hobby. By J. Ben.Lieberman [New York: Sterling Publishing Co. & London: Oak Tree Press, 1963. 128 p. Index.] is the brash, bigger, and less restrained American counterpart to the quintessentially British book by Ryder. Lieberman was an enthusiastic amateur printer, and this book is an exuberant well-illustrated pitch for his hobby. The author was not a scholar (nor particularly an aesthete), but if you like unabashed 'boosterism,' you might find this book fun to read, despite its errors of both omission and commission (not unlike his later book, Type and Typefaces, described above.)Printing, A Practical Introduction to the Graphic Arts by Hartley E. Jackson [New York; McGraw-Hill, 1957, 8vo., 286 pages]. Organization and use of the type case, hand setting, use of the platen press, and basic binding, with short sections on linoleum blocks, silk screen and photography in this industrial arts text. Not as good as Polk, but more than acceptable as an apprentice course book.Graphic Arts by Frederick D. Kagy [Chicago: The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc., 1961, 8vo, 112 pps.] Another (and probably the last) of the high-school vocational textbooks designed for once-over-lightly printing classes included as part of a longer graphic arts program, this short book gives a simple but well-illustrated quickie introduction to hand type-setting and platen press printing in about twenty pages. Nowhere near as comprehensive as many of the others, but certainly better than learning through pure trial and error.Introduction to Printing, The Craft of Letterpress by Herbert Simon, [London: Faber and Faber, 1968]Getting Started in Hand Printing & Binding by Van Waterford, [TAB Books, Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania, 1981]Other Book ArtsHand Bookbinding: A Manual of Instruction by Aldren A. Watson. A clear, thorough, inexpensive introduction to hand binding.The Papermaker's Companion: The Ultimate Guide to Making And Using Handmade Paper by Helen Hiebert. Extensive step by step instructions.How to Marbleize Paper: Step-By-Step Instructions for 12 Traditional Patterns by Gabriele Grunebaum. A slim, inexpensive, but useful paperback.Practical Typecasting by Theo Rehak. The ultimate and definitive book on the subject, by the dean of American typefounders.Miller's Collecting Books by Catherine Porter. A modern, illustrated guide to all aspects of book collecting.BibliographiesA Typological Tally compiled by Tony Appleton [Brighton, (T. Appleton, 28 Florence Rd., Brighton, Sussex BN1 6DJ), 1973. 94 p. ill.]. Thirteen hundred writings in English on printing history, typography, bookbinding, and papermaking, compiled by one of the world's top dealers in the field.A Bibliography of Printing with Notes and Illustrations by F. C. Bigmore and C. W. H. Wyman [London: Oak Knoll Books, 1978]. Universally known as "Bigmore and Wyman," this is to printing bibliographies what Updike is to books about printing types. Published in 1880 (editions since then have been reprints) B&W provides excellent commentaries on just about every book that had been written on the subject as of the year it was published.Book Dealers/Publishers Specializing in Typography and the Book ArtsOak Knoll Books, ABAA 310 Delaware St. New Castle, DE 19720 USA tel:302-328-7232fax:302-328-7274 www.oakknoll.com email: oakknoll@oakknoll.comThe Veatches Art of the Book P.O. Box 328 140 Crescent Street Northampton, MA 01061 tel: 1-413-584-1867 fax: 1-413-584-2751 www.veatches.com email: Veatchs@veatchs.comFrances Wakeman Books 2 Manor Way, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 2BD, UK tel: +44 (0)1865 378316 fax: +44 (0)1865 378934 www.fwbooks.com email: info@fwbooks.comThe Bookpress Ltd. 1304 Jamestown Road Williamsburg, Virginia 23185 USA tel:(757) 229-1260 fax:(757) 229-0498 email: bookpress@widomaker.comTimothy Hawley Books 915 S. Third St. Louisville, KY 40203 U.S.A. tel: 502-451-3021email: hawleybk@home.comFrits Knuf Antiquarian Books P.O.Box 780, Oss NB, Netherlands, 5340 AT. tel: +31 412 626072. fax: +31 412 638755 email: info@books-on-books.comColophon Book Shop 117 Water Street Exeter, NH, 03833 tel: 603-772-8443www.colophonbooks.com email: colophon@nh.ultranet.comNA Graphics Attn: Fritz Klinke P.O. Box 467 Silverton, Colorado 81433 tel: 970-387-0212fax: 970-387-0127 email: nagraph@frontier.netDavid R. Godine, Publisher 9 Hamilton Place Boston, MA 02108-4715 tel: (617) 451-9600fax: (617) 350-0250 www.godine.com email: info@godine.comPeachpit Press 1249 Eighth Street Berkeley, CA 94710 tel (800) 283-9444 tel (510) 548-5991www.peachpit.comDawson's Book Shop 535 North Larchmont Blvd. Los Angeles, CA, 90004 tel: (213) 469-2186Many thanks to Howard Gralla, Alvin Eisenman, Robert Fleck, Kathy Schinhofen, Chuck Rowe, Earl Allen, Susan Lesch, Kathleen Tinkel, Michael J. Boyle, John Horn, Chris Simonds, Fritz Klinke, Roberta Lavadour, David Norton, Tom Parson, David Goodrich and the many members of the Letpress Internet mailing list for their suggestions before and during the compilation of this bibliography.An earlier version of this bibliography was originally published by Aldus Corporation in conjunction with their release of the Fontographer type design application. That version was, in turn, adapted and expanded from an earlier annotated checklist by the same author prepared for members of the MAUG Forums on Compuserve.Copyright © 1988-2014 by David S. Rose david@fiveroses.org The current version of this bibliography is always available online athttp://www.fiveroses.org/bibliog... and hyper-linking to it is encouraged. For any other publication inquiries, please contact the author. Revision: August 20, 2003 / December 18, 2014
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How do I know if my USB drive has a virus?
USB devices are reversibly connected to computers and often even built into virtually all computers. This universal interface standard revolutionized the world over the past two decades, thanks to its versatility. Almost any computer peripheral, from storage and input gadgets to healthcare devices, can connect over using this ubiquitous technology. This versatility is also it's Achilles heel; Since different device types can plug in via the same connector, one type of device can turn into a more capable or malicious type without the user noticing at all. This is what a BadUSB does. To turn one device type into another, USB controller chips present in peripherals need to be reprogrammed. Most widely spread USB controller chips, including those in USB thumb drives, hardly (if any) have any protection from such reprogramming.Regular computer users shares USB drives like average business cards, even though we all know that they often carry malware and many of us can remember few bitter experiences. To protect our computer from such undue experience we all depend on antivirus & antimalware scans. In case of some unpatchable trouble, the occasional reformatting keeps our thumbdrives from becoming the carrier of the malware epidemic. But the security problems with USB devices run deeper than we all knew about: Their risk isn’t just in what they detectably carry, it can be built into the core of how they work and talk to the host computer. The kind of compromise BadUSB is able to make, is nearly impossible to counter at present without banning the sharing of USB devices. The problem isn’t limited to thumb drives. All types of USB devices from keyboards, mice and webcam to smartphones have firmware that can be reprogrammed in a similar manner a USB memory sticks is made into BadUSB. BadUSB can do whatever one can do with a keyboard attached to a computer, which is basically everything a computer does. In summary BadUSB can doatleast the followings: 1. Can emulate a keyboard and issue commands on behalf of the logged-in user, for example to download files or install malware. Such malware, in turn, can infect the controller chips of other USB devices connected to the computer.2. The device can also spoof a network card and change the computer’s setting to redirect traffic.3. It can detect that the computer is starting up and then can boot a small virus, which infects the computer’s operating system prior to boot.To make things worse, cleanup after an infection is hard, if not impossible. Simply reinstalling the operating system – the last resort response to otherwise ineradicable malware – does not address BadUSB infections at their root. The USB drive, from which the operating system is reinstalled, may already be infected, as may the hardwired webcam or other USB connected components inside the computer. A BadUSB device may even replace the computer’s BIOS – again by emulating a keyboard and unlocking a hidden file on the infected USB drive.Once infected with BadUSB, the computer and all USB peripherals that came in contact with the infected machine can never be trusted again.One apparent good news is that this susceptibility is reportedly tested only on one USB manufacturer that is Phison electronics – A Taiwanese Electronics Company. Though Phison sticks can initiate attack on any device they are attached to, but it is not clear whether the established infection will be able to spread to any other USB drive that will be attached into the infected device later on. The company has not yet publicly listed the vendors for whom they manufacture USB sticks. Therefore, currently it is still not very clear, whether the issue really can turn into a digital epidemic.The other good news is, according to knowledge available over web, at least one company (Ironkey) already does purposefully protect against BadUSB attacks. Their new line of thumbdrive products require that any new updates to its thumbdrives’ firmware be signed with an unforgeable cryptographic signature that prevents malicious reprogramming.Please see our original blog post with relevant reference links at No Defense Against BadUSB Firmware Exploit, Yet
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If Ancient Egyptians were of black complexion, why are Egyptians today brown and beige?
If. Ancient Egyptians were indeed not of “black” complexion, nor that Egyptians today are “brown” and “Beige”. They are basically still the same people not “black complexed”For more detailsRita Maria Bargash's answer to Why do North Africans look brown?They are Egyptians, just Egyptians. Mediterranean people with a rich heritage, a beautiful culture and its not depending on colour. Mediterranean people look very divers in complexion due to adaption of their habitat, the result of environmental conditions. Some look pale while others look dark olive while belonging to the same mediterranean family.Sometimes a dark complexion could be a result of admixture with sub saharan Africans(which occured within the last 750 to 1200 years ago as a result of the trans saharan slave trade) but not necessarily.Genomic Ancestry of North Africans Supports Back-to-Africa MigrationsThis input was maternal since male slaves were not allowed to breed.The chilling details of the Arab Slave Trade in Africa and the barbaric castration of black boys - Face2Face AfricaThis is the reason why there is barely no E1b1a7 and E1b1a8 to be found in North Africa.There is no reason for people of the mediterranean/North Africa to be “black” complexed.One of nearest point to Africa is the remote sicilian island of Lampedusa which is at 10 hours navigation from Tunisia by a speed ferry.The Delta is right around the corner from the southern levantThis Europe is IberiaIts strange to assume that there is a clear cut division between a “White Europe” ending in Gibraltar and a “Black Africa” starting 8 miles southwards but some people somehow still like to believe this, while quite a few think of Africa as a country.Moroccan resultsAlgerian DNA resultsEgyptian DNA resultsNorth Africa is the mediterranean part of this continent and always has been for the same reason why western Asians or the Levantines are not “yellow” just because they share the same continent with East Asians.Africa is a huge continent, not a one race country(genetic clustering) While it doesn’t look it, Africa is big, really big. In fact, Africa’s true size is 30 million square km, just under twice the size of Russia or bigger than Canada, the United States and China put together! African, unlike what is thought in the New World, is not an ethnicity nor a phenotype. Africa is too big to be seen as one.The Sahara is the largest hot desert in the world, and the third largest desert behind Antarctica and the Arctic, which are both cold deserts. The Sahara is one of the harshest environments on Earth, covering 3.6 million square miles (9.4 million square kilometers), nearly a third of the African continent, about the size of the United States (including Alaska and Hawaii).The Sahara: Earth's Largest Hot DesertThe Sahara desert alone is as huge as the USA and always played a role in separating the ethnic groups of north africa from the rest of africa and it still does till today.During the last 3 million years the Sahara has cycled from Green jungle to harsh dessert every 20.000 years.''The Sahara was wetter and greener during multiple interglacial periods of the Quaternary, when some have suggested it featured very large (mega) lakes, ranging in surface area from 30,000 to 350,000 km2.Stratigraphy and paleobiology of the Upper Cretaceous-Lower Paleogene sediments from the Trans-Saharan Seaway in Mali : O'Leary, Maureen A., author : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet ArchiveIn this paper, we review the physical and biological evidence for these large lakes, especially during the African Humid Period (AHP) 11–5 ka. Megalake systems from around the world provide a checklist of diagnostic features, such as multiple well-defined shoreline benches, wave-rounded beach gravels where coarse material is present, landscape smoothing by lacustrine sediment, large-scale deltaic deposits, and in places, tufas encrusting shorelines. Our survey reveals no clear evidence of these features in the Sahara, except in the Chad basin. Hydrologic modeling of the proposed megalakes requires mean annual rainfall ≥1.2 m/yr and a northward displacement of tropical rainfall belts by ≥1000 km. Such a profound displacement is not supported by other paleo-climate proxies and comprehensive climate models, challenging the existence of megalakes in the Sahara. Rather than megalakes, isolated wetlands and small lakes are more consistent with the Sahelo-Sudanian paleoenvironment that prevailed in the Sahara during the AHP. A pale-green and discontinuously wet Sahara is the likelier context for human migrations out of Africa during the late Quaternary.''https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/quaternary-research/article/megalakes-in-the-sahara-a-review/7515BC9AAFE40606D3FC30C9D0C7D9D7During the end Pleistocene hyperarid phase, the Sahara extended about 400km further south than it now does (Nichol 2004). Following this, after 11,000 BP, there are four distinct phases of human occupation of the Eastern Sahara (Kuper and Kropelein 2006; Bubenzer and Riemer 2007): the Reoccupation phase (10,500–9,000 BP); the Formation phase (9,000–7,300 BP) ending abruptly in areas without permanent water; the Regionalization phase (7,300–5,500 BP) featuring retreat to highland and Nile refuges; and the Marginalization phase (5,500–3,500 BP) (Fig. 6.16). During the Reoccupation phase (10,500–9,000 BP), the northward advance of monsoon rains at 10,500 BP transformed the Sahara into a savannah, allowed hunter gatherers from the south (defined by their tool kit and animal bones and already adapted to a savannah life-style) to migrate northwards into the present desert. Camp sites (10,000–9,000 BP) around former lakes show migrations of over several hundred kilometres into the Great Sand Sea, now the most inhospitable area of the entire desert (Fig. 6.8). The dunes and interdunes must then have provided enough wild grains and other plants to feed the hunter gatherers and their game.The first humans inhabiting the green “sahara” were Kiffian, hunter-gatherers who grew up to two metres tall. The large stature of the Kiffian suggests that food was plentiful during their time in Gobero, 10,000 to 8,000 years ago.There have been a lot of speculation in regards to the biological affinity of Kiffians and the later Tenerians.The Kiffian skulls have been metrically analysed, and they group closely with the North African Iberomaurusian/Cro-Magnon samples i.e. robust archaic Caucasoids. The later Tenerians (Gob-m) are outliers, as they have a leaner, more Mediterranean structureCompare the Tenerian skull with the Grimaldi cranium. They are similar in many respects, right down to their peculiar projecting front teeth: Grimaldi man was a name given in the early 20th century to an Italian find of two paleolithic skeletons. While the skeletons differ markedly from the contemporary Cro-Magnon finds from other parts of Europe, the Grimaldi find, together with various other finds of early modern humans, was classified as Cro-Magnon (in the wider sense) in the 1960s, though the term European early modern humans is today preferred for this assemblage.So when they say that the small, lean Tenerians craniometrically more closely resemble groups in the Mediterranean region or has a more “Mediterranean” structure those scientists refer to the grimaldi “race”"The shapes of the Ténérian skulls are puzzling, researchers said, because they resemble those of Mediterranean people, not other nearby groups."Multiple studies confirm that the Cro-Magnon (Mechta) population had been living in North Africa for a very long time. According to genetic research published in 2010, part of the modern population displays a genetic marker that is characteristic of a transition from Cro-Magnon (Mechta) type to the Mediterranean type, and is restricted to North Africa. This suggests that an expansion of the Mediterranean group took place in North Africa around 10,500 years ago and spread to neighboring populations. What anthropological studies of prehistoric peoples demonstrate is that the Cro-Magnon (Mechta)-type people were the sole inhabitants of the Mediterranean and North Africa regions, including the Canary Islands, prior to 10,500 years ago.According to Kefi et al. 2005, study about the Taforalt population more than 12,000 yrs ago) the populations had a Cro-magnon-like morphology (Mechtoids) and likely a cultural link with Iberia (Ibero-maurusian culture/Oranian culture) Lakeside Cemeteries in the Sahara: 5000 Years of Holocene Population and Environmental ChangeScienceDirectDNA studies of the Taforalt population that is the closest to the Kiffians on the chart (WMC)shows no Sub Saharan Mt DNA in it, just Eurasian specific lineages H, U, JT, V (90.5%) and North African specific U6.The majority of the Mechtoid DNA is haplogroup U and U6, along with H, with haplogroup U making up 33% of the Mechtoid genome, with Haplogroup H making up a total of 22% of the Mechtoid genome. And Iberomaurusian fossils excavated at the Ifri'N Ammar site carrying Haplogroup U6, which was displayed at a frequency occurrence of 50% of their genome. Haplogroup U6 emerged 35,000KYA, which is genetically and archaeological consistent with back-to-Africa migration from a Eurasian population that predated the Holocene (12,000YA).Population expansion in the North African Late Pleistocene signalled by mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6According to Katie Manning and Adrian Timpson, The demographic response to Holocene climate change in the Sahara, Quaternary Science Reviews, Volume 101, 1 October 2014, Pages 28–35. ScienceDirect the greening of the Sahara enabled a major population increase there between 10,500 and 5500 BP. The population then crashed as the Sahara returned to desert.The sahara early holocene population were of mechtoid stock, streatching as deep south as modern central mali, unlike people living in central Africa today who seem to have radiated from a relatively small West African and possibly pygmy population within the last 20,000 years (Coon, 1962, pp. 651-656; Spurdle et al., 1994; Watson et al., 1996).North Africa might be part of africa in terms of physical geography but its history is mostly tied with Europe and the middle east.North Africa is considered a distinct geographic and ethnic entity within Africa.Studies of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y-chromosome genealogical markers provide evidence that the North African gene pool has been shaped by the back-migration of several Eurasian lineages in Paleolithic and Neolithic times“The indigenous North African ancestry may have been more common in Berber populations and appears most closely related to populations outside of Africa, but divergence between Maghrebi peoples and Near Eastern/Europeans likely precedes the Holocene (>12,000 ya)”.“The most probable origin of the proto-U6 lineage was the Near East. Around 30,000 years ago it spread to North Africa where it represents a signature of regional continuity… Attested presence of Caucasian people in northern Africa goes up to Paleolithic times… Linguistic research suggests that the Afroasiatic phylum of languages could have originated and extended with these Caucasians... " (“Mitochondrial DNA transit between West Asia and North Africa inferred from U6 phylogeography” Nicole Maca-Meyer, Ana M González, José Pestano, Carlos Flores, José M Larruga, Vicente M Cabrera; 2003)They cluster= components(part of our DNA) with people outside of Africa rather than with people below the Sahara.Genomic Ancestry of North Africans Supports Back-to-Africa MigrationsNorth African populations are distinct from sub-Saharan Africans based on cultural, linguistic, and phenotypic attributesGenomic Ancestry of North Africans Supports Back-to-Africa MigrationsThey carry the same amount as neanderthal admixture as west Asians as europeans and its NOT due to recent near eastern or european migrations.North African Populations Carry the Signature of Admixture with Neandertals“We found that North African populations have a signNow excess of derived alleles shared with Neandertals, when compared to sub-Saharan Africans. This excess is similar to that found in non-African humans, a fact that can be interpreted as a sign of Neandertal admixture. Furthermore, the Neandertal's genetic signal is higher in populations with a local, pre-Neolithic North African ancestry. Therefore, the detected ancient admixture is not due to recent Near Eastern or European migrations. Sub-Saharan populations are the only ones not affected by the admixture event with Neandertals”North African Populations Carry the Signature of Admixture with NeandertalsUnlike what some people assume, North Africans are not recent “arrivals” /arab or europeans genetically or some kind of result, they carry indigenous haplogroups belonging to north Africa and mostly of local origin.When Eurasians migrated back to Africa it was a total different landscape back than: “black” Africans are the youngest edition to African continent and arose long after modern humans left and returned back to Africa. black Africans seem to have radiated from a relatively small West African and possibly pygmy population within the last 20,000 years (Coon, 1962, pp. 651-656; Spurdle et al., 1994; Watson et al., 1996).The oldest-known skeleton of a West African was found in Nigeria at Iwo Eleru; it is of a negroid man and is dated to 9250 ± 150 BC.'' The same conclusion appears in African archaeology 'by D. W. Phillipson, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 162.The earliest proto-negroids have very recent origins in comparison which archaeologically don't surpass the mid holocen at best scenario, and they emerged away from sahara region after the designNowcation and their morphology only spurred during the Holocene - that's 30,000 years after OOA. They only started to migrate” within the last 5000 years from central Africa to south and for a small part east Africa when the sahara started again to dry out. They never went up north"Iwo Eleru’s place among Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene populations of North and East Africa. Christopher M. Stojanowski et al. Journal of Human Evolution 75 (2014) 80-89"In this paper, Iwo Eleru was compared with a more circumscribed series of samples: its contemporaries in North Africa. Craniometric analyses confirmed that Maghrebi and Nile Valley populations were signNowly different from each other during the Late Pleistocene and that Iwo Eleru demonstrated no affinity with populations in either region. It plotted well outside the observed ranges of variation of all other terminal Pleistocene samples and held the most extreme position within the MDS plot. This was true for both raw data and size-corrected data. It is important to note, however, that although Nile Valley and Maghrebi populations were statistically signNowly different there was still considerable overlap among the individual plotted specimens. This affirms Iwo Eleru’s outlier status is not just a function of comparing individual level data to sample centroids that might mask the range of interindividual variability. In addition, the Nile Valley and Maghreb are more geographically distant from one another than the latter is to the Iwo Eleru rock shelter, which suggests that the distinct phenotype of Iwo Eleru is also not just a factor of isolation by distance and gaps in the sampling protocol. This result, then, affirms the calvaria’s atypical morphology with respect to its contemporaries. There is no other specimen with similar neurocranial anatomy present in supra-equatorial Africa during the terminal Pleistocene."Nonetheless, West African contribution to the peopling of the Sahara is not supported by results presented here. Although Iwo Eleru was most similar to the Saharan sample centroid using size corrected data, the specimen was still quite distinctive from all Holocene samples and the pattern of distances was not robust to the data scaling method. Interestingly, material from the 10,000year old Gobero site in Niger was included in the central Saharan sample (Sereno et al., 2008) and Iwo Eleru demonstrated no phenetic similarities to these individuals despite their relative geographic proximity (see Fig. 1). Therefore, results presented here lend conditional support to inferences based in linguistics (Ehret, 1993; Blench, 2006), archeology (Sutton, 1974, 1977; Clark, 1980; Haaland, 1992, 2009; Drake et al., 2011), and physical anthropology (Petit-Maire and Dutour, 1987; Dutour, 1989a,b) that the Holocene peopling of the Sahara did not initially involve the northward migration of tropical West Africans."https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pub...The time and place of origin can be further narrowed down with linguistic data. Speakers of proto-Niger Congo broke up c. 10,000 BP and the oldest derived group appear to be proto-Mande speakers, whose descendants inhabit the Niger's headwaters near the Mali-Guinea border (Blench, 1984, pp. 128-129; Ehret, 1984; Murdock, 1959, pp. 44, 64-68)[...]" Thus, black Africans were still absent from most of sub-Saharan Africa even within historic times. ‘before Africa became black’."(Frost; 2008)”black” Africans only started migrating within the last 5000 years from central Africa to south and for a small part east Africa when the sahara started to dry out. They never went up north. "The interpolation analyses and complete sequencing of present mtDNA sub-Saharan lineages observed in North Africa support the genetic impact of recenttrans-Saharan migrations, namely the slave trade initiated by the Arab conquest of North Africa in the seventh century. Saharan people did not leave traces in the North African maternal gene pool for the time of its settlement, some 40,000 years ago." (Harich et al, 2010)First Wave:The first wave of the Bantu migration followed two paths into the rain forest and around the Congo River. Many came with hopes to start small villages, and farm along the river banks. Although, many hopes ended due to the dense rain forests not suitable for farming.Second Wave:After the struggle of finding land for farming, Bantu groups set path towards the east coast of Southern Africa where land was better suited for farming. In this dry grassy-wet land of Africa, the Bantu speakers raised herds of livestock such as sheep, goats, and cattle.The Bantu expansion that swept out of West Central Africa beginning ∼5,000 y ago is one of the most influential cultural events of its kind, eventually spreading over a vast geographical area a new way of life in which farming played an increasingly important role.Bantu expansion shows that habitat alters the route and pace of human dispersals.Its wrong to asume that only “black” Africans represent Africa: Africa is genetically the most divers continent. For instance west Africans(or the “black”/negroid race)from Equatorial lands are the only 'species' that carry the Muc7 "ghost gene" Khoisans (capoids)don't carry it, East Africans(paternal eurasian maternal nilothic), North Africans (caucasoid mediterranean) don't carry the Muc7 'ghost gene'. Also the dark Skin colour envolved among certain Africans, close to the equator evolved over time in adaption to the environment. “Black” skin is an adaptation as a sunblocker, it happened in small groups while the associated allele for skin tone in North Africans is identical by descent to that found in Europeans and west AsiansScientists found the genome of the ancient Egyptians remained surprisingly consistent for over 1,800 years.A sub saharan admix of 6-8% did occur but is limited to the last 700 years only (well within the Islamic conquest of Egypt), presumably from owning sub saharan slaves but overall modern and ancient Egyptians share the same genome (no greater than 15% differential), and are verifiably the same people. The DNA of modern Egyptians contains the Y Haplogroup which determines lineage, which makes biologically impossible for them to be descended from non-indigenous people."The study found that ancient Egyptians were most closely related to ancient populations in the Levant, and were also closely related to Neolithic populations from the Anatolian Peninsula and Europehttps://phys.org/news/2017-05-genome-ancient-egyptian-mummies.html#jCp""Both types of genomic material showed that ancient Egyptians closest relatives were people living during the Neolithic and Bronze ages in an area known as the Levant" "Not a big surprise. The Nile delta is right around the corner from the southern levant.Ancient Egyptian mummified dog, found in Tomb KV50 nearby tomb of Amenhotep II (KV35) in the Valley of the Kings, West Thebes. Now in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo.There was ancient back migration into Africa via the Levant corridor. It's these same ancient people from the fertile crescent that migrated and populated other regions of the world. Have a read of the article below.https://www.google.co.uk/amp/s/mobile.nytimes.com/2016/10/18/science/ancient-farmers-archaeology-dna.amp.htmlThe article explores one such ancient farming community from the southern Levant bringing crops and animals with them.“They were also genetically similar to Neolithic populations from the Anatolian Peninsula and Europe”.They share common ancestry with "European Neolithic"=EEF Meds who moved to Europe from Anatolia(modern day Turkey) during Neolithic period. Neolithic Anatolians cluster closest to ancient and modern Europeans and most closely to Southern Europeans as this is where 1/3/-1/4th of their ancestry is derived. The earliest Neolithic central Anatolians belonged to the same gene pool as the first Neolithic migrants spreading into Europe and further up to north Africa. So unlike what some people might think it is, the ancient egyptians were not of European descent or immigrants from Europe.So with this EEF component as well as a Levantine component which includes a PPNA Natufian component, makes them what they are : Levantine Neolithic Meds.In plain English, the ancient Egyptians were related to all the Eastern mediterranean people.The ancient Egyptians possessed the light skin allele.And from the paper itself: we analysed several functionally relevant SNPs in sample JK2911, which had low contamination and relatively high coverage. This individual had a derived allele at the SLC24A5 locus, which contributes to lighter skin pigmentation and was shown to be at high frequency in Neolithic Anatolia41,The light skin associated allele in North Africans is identical by descent to that found in Europeans. Lightskinnend people are perfectly capable to survive in Africa, just like today. Africa is a huge continent, there is no such as an “African climate” where its hot and not suitable for people who dont look like the stereotypical “African” or where lightskinnend people will burn to the crisp. There is no evidence for this.Fact remains tho that “race” is not just about pigmentation. Skull morphology is a much more meaningful “racial” difference.Egyptian actress Nelly Karem❤This is how we classify species in physical anthropology, mostly by skulls.Forensics 101: Race Determination Based on the SkullIf you notice how we trace the evolution of man we do so by the shape and size of the skull. We should not make the mistake to equal skin color with “race”, having different skin shades doesnt necessarily mean "admixture" it could be an adaption to environmental conditions. Skin color means nothing when it comes to your genepool or "racial" clustering. Its just a small fraction. The genes that code for the colour of the skin has no significance compared to the weight of all the other genes that involves much more genes....this is why im not a big fan of using arbitrary terms like “black” “white”Skin color is not a raceThe indigenous peoples of North Africa were and are are mediterranean. Mediterranean equals caucasoid and range, same as other peoples in this region from pale skin to light/dark olive(People with an olive skin color spectrum look divers, from light skinnend while others will have a darker skin tone. In winter it looks pale/yellowish. Its not stable) but for the most part they have Caucasoid facial features.The term caucasoid indicates an anthropological classification of Homo sapiens and is a conflation of the demonym Caucasian and the Greek suffix eidos (meaning "form", "shape", "resemblance"), implying a resemblance to the native inhabitants of the Caucasus. Regardless of tanning, the skull of the caucasoids is different from the skull of Negroids, Mongoloids and Australoids. A blond Caucasoid with blue eyes has the same skull of a Caucasoid with fark eyes and dark skin. In addition, most Caucasoids share the same problems and physical prerogatives, which often differ from those of other “races”(genetic clustering) A differentiation is necessary in the medical, genetic, forensic and scientific fields, which is why no scientist has ever done anything to eliminate these classifications. Forensic anthropologists, osteologists and paleo-anthropologists who use craniometry still exist and their research is valid. A pale caucasoid can become very dark with a tan and go back to being very pale when he/she is far from the sun.A very tanned-'brown' Caucasoid isn't “black”.The term Caucasian (which refers to the inhabitants of the Caucasus) is often mistakenly used instead of Caucasoid.caucasian: The term is derived from 19th century pseudo-science (it had something to do with facial features). It has no place in modern science but it still exists in common usage to describe pretty much all the people from places where Indo-European languages were developed and some nearby peoples whose languages aren't related to the Indo-European group (e.g. Basques, Hungarians, and Finns).Caucasoid does not mean or equal European.North African population are quite distinct from sub-Saharan Africans (1), and this difference is reflected in their lighter skin and European/Middle Eastern physical features." Science 6 2007:Vol. 316. no. 5821, pp. 50 – 53Context 1... all the single features involved in this process are those gener- ally used to describe African groups of sub-Saharan origin (Krogman & Iscan, 1986;Bass, 1987;Gill & Rhine, 1990): alveolar prognathism, wide pyriform aperture, flattened and large nasal bones, larger maxilla, larger and more squared orbits, large interorbital diameters, etc (Fig. 8A). The opposite pattern (orthognathism, nar- row and protruded nasal bones, narrow nasal aperture, small interorbital diameters, etc.) characterises European/North African populations (Fig. 8B).Context 2... prognathism, wide pyriform aperture, flattened and large nasal bones, larger maxilla, larger and more squared orbits, large interorbital diameters, etc (Fig. 8A). The opposite pattern (orthognathism, narrow and protruded nasal bones, narrow nasal aperture, small interorbital diameters, etc.) characterises European/North African populations (Fig. 8B).Craniofacial morphologyHead of Amenhotep III Wearing the Blue CrownRelief depicting Ramses IIRameses II VS a “Black” AfricanSeti I. Father of Rameses IIRameses IISeti I father of Rameses IIOne of the most common ways of assessing population relationships has been the comparative analysis of skull types.Such a study was carried out by the physical anthropologist C. Loring Brace and five co-researchers (Brace et al., 1993) who statistically analyzed a range of 24 cranial measurements from diverse world samples, including ancient Egyptians.The biological affinities of the ancient Egyptians were tested against their neighbors and selected prehistoric groups as well as against samples representing the major geographic population clusters of the world. Two dozen craniofacial measurements were taken on each individual used. The raw measurements were converted into C scores and used to produce Euclidean distance dendrograms. The measurements were principally of adaptively trivial traits that display patterns of regional similarities based solely on genetic relationships. The Predynastic of Upper Egypt and the Late Dynastic of Lower Egypt are more closely related to each other than to any other population. As a whole, they show ties with the European Neolithic, North Africa, modern Europe, and, more remotely, India, but not at all with sub-Saharan Africa, eastern Asia, Oceania, or the New World. Adjacent people in the Nile valley show similarities in trivial traits in an unbroken series from the delta in the north southward through Nubia and all the way to Somalia at the equator. At the same time, the gradient in skin color and body proportions suggests long-term adaptive response to selective forces appropriate to the latitude where they occur. An assessment of race is as useless as it is impossible. Neither clines nor clusters alone suffice to deal with the biological nature of a widely distributed population. Both must be used.We conclude that the Egyptians have been in place since back in the Pleistocene and have been largely unaffected by either invasions or migrations. As others have noted, Egyptians are Egyptians, and they were so in the past as well.© 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.Source: Brace et al. 1993,Dental TraitsThe analysis of discrete dental traits is often used to determine biological relationships of populations using dental remains. The recent work of JD Irish (Irish 1997, 1998a, 1998b) examines several African popuations and concludes that Egyptian populations show more dental similarity to modern North Africans, Arabs, and even Europeans, than to Sub-Saharan Africans. The diagram as demonstrated by Irish, 1998b) shows the results of a statistical cluster analysis. The ancient Egyptian dental configuration resembles that of recent North Africans, rather than subSaharan Africans. The appearance of Nubian groups in the North African cluster may seem surprising at first, but this may well be due to proximity and gene flow with neighboring North African peoples. Indeed, other North African traits have been found in some Nubian groups as well — in genetics (Cavalli-Sforza et al. 1994, Krings et. al 1999), and hair Hrdy (1978) — although of course Nubians in general show signNowly stronger sub-Saharan influences than do Egyptians.HairAncient Egyptian mummy hair unearthed with curls preserved after 3,000 yearsMummy TjuyuTwo boxes in the jewelry niche of Sithathoriunet’s tomb seem to have held her ceremonial wigs. The wooden boxes and hair had completely decomposed, but 1,251 gold rings in two sizes that had decorated one of the wigs were preserved. They have been placed on a modern wig in an arrangement suggested by a wooden head that the Metropolitan Museum excavated at Lisht, another Middle Kingdom royal cemetery. A gold crown and a pectoral with the name of Amenemhat III, both in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, were packed in the same box with the ornamented wig.From Tomb of Sithathoriunet, Lahun. Middle Kingdom, 12th Dynasty, reign of Senusret II-Amenemhat III, ca. 1887-1813 BC. Now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.Queen Tiyewhy can’t it be everlasting?Numerous mummies with hair still attached to the skulls show that straight, wavy, or lightly curled hair types were common in ancient Egypt. For example, in a study (Titlbachova and Titlbach, 1977) involving detailed microscopic investigation of hair samples taken from several ancient Egyptian mummies, most were determined to have been naturally straight, wavy, or gently curled, with a roundish cross-section typical of modern Eurasian and North African peoples. Only a minority showed evidence of structural characteristics traditionally called "Negroid"; even in these the "Negroid" elements were weakly manifested.Joann Fletcher, a consultant to the Bioanthropology Foundation in the UK, in what she calls an "absolute, thorough study of all ancient Egyptian hair samples" — relied on various techniques, such as electron microscopy and chromatography to analyze hair samples (Parks, 2000). She discovered that most of the natural hair types and those used for hairpieces were made of what she calls "Caucasian-type" hair, including even instances of blonde and red hair. Fletcher surmises that some of the lighter hair types may have been influenced by the presence of ancient Libyans and Greeks in ancient Egypt. However, this type of hair was also found to be present in much earlier times.So Caucasoid meaning in general with a variety of skinshades from “white, olive, different shades of brown and sometimes dark brown, hair; from flat wavy to different degrees of curliness, a variable skull type which ranges from dolichocephalic to brachycephalic, nose; variable between leptorrhine to Mesorrhine but platyrrine is never found. Nasal bridge is generally high, so skin color really isn't really a factor. skin colour is not really as much a racial characteristic as more distinctive things, like the shape of the skull, blood type, and so forth.Africa its not an ethnostate and never has been same as Asia. North Africa might be part of africa in terms of physical geography but its history is mostly tied with Europe and the middle east. The nearest point to Africa is the remote sicilian island of Lampedusa which is at 10 hours navigation from Tunisia by a speed ferry. Spain instead borders with Portugal and France and is less than 15 miles from Morocco. Half an hour of navigation. The Nile delta is right around the corner from the southern levantNorth Africa is considered a distinct geographic and ethnic entity within Africa. Studies of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y-chromosome genealogical markers provide evidence that the North African gene pool has been shaped by the back-migration of several Eurasian lineages in Paleolithic and Neolithic times“The indigenous North African ancestry may have been more common in Berber populations and appears most closely related to populations outside of Africa, but divergence between Maghrebi peoples and Near Eastern/Europeans likely precedes the Holocene (>12,000 ya)”.Genomic Ancestry of North Africans Supports Back-to-Africa MigrationsNorth African populations are distinct from sub-Saharan Africans based on cultural, linguistic, and phenotypic attributesGenomic Ancestry of North Africans Supports Back-to-Africa Migrations“The most probable origin of the proto-U6 lineage was the Near East. Around 30,000 years ago it spread to North Africa where it represents a signature of regional continuity… Attested presence of Caucasian people in northern Africa goes up to Paleolithic times… Linguistic research suggests that the Afroasiatic phylum of languages could have originated and extended with these Caucasians... " (“Mitochondrial DNA transit between West Asia and North Africa inferred from U6 phylogeography” Nicole Maca-Meyer, Ana M González, José Pestano, Carlos Flores, José M Larruga, Vicente M Cabrera; 2003)They cluster= components(part of our DNA) with people outside of Africa rather than with people below the Sahara.They carry the same amount as neanderthal admixture as west Asians as europeans and its NOT due to recent near eastern or european migrations.North African Populations Carry the Signature of Admixture with Neandertals“We found that North African populations have a signNow excess of derived alleles shared with Neandertals, when compared to sub-Saharan Africans. This excess is similar to that found in non-African humans, a fact that can be interpreted as a sign of Neandertal admixture. Furthermore, the Neandertal's genetic signal is higher in populations with a local, pre-Neolithic North African ancestry. Therefore, the detected ancient admixture is not due to recent Near Eastern or European migrations. Sub-Saharan populations are the only ones not affected by the admixture event with Neandertals”North African Populations Carry the Signature of Admixture with NeandertalsAfrica is a huge continent and genetically the most divers. Also the dark Skin colour envolved among certain Africans, close to the equator evolved over time in adaption to the environment. North Africans(mediterranean) and “Black” Africans have a different type of melanin. Eumelanin is in “black” Africans, their dark skin is a sun blocker while North Africans have pheumelanin and their skin is the ultimate sun absorbers.“Black” skin is an adaptation as a sunblocker, it happened in small groups while the associated allele for skin tone in North Africans is identical by descent to that found in Europeans and west Asians. Fact remains tho that “race” is not just about pigmentation. Skull morphology is a much more meaningful “racial” difference. This is how we classify species in physical anthropology, mostly by skulls. If you notice how we trace the evolution of man we do so by the shape and size of the skull. We should not make the mistake to equal skin color with “race”, having different skin shades doesnt necessarily mean "admixture" it could be an adaption to environmental conditions. Skin color means nothing when it comes to your genepool or "racial" clustering. Its just a small fraction. The genes that code for the colour of the skin has no significance compared to the weight of all the other genes that involves much more genes...So the reason why indigenous north Africans, Berber and Egyptians are not “black” like west Africans(East and south Africans are not negroids) is because they trace their origin from the same source population as west Asians(caucasoids) and Europeans(caucasoids) and have a different type of melanin, the result of an ancient back migrations. North Africans carry indigenous north African Y and Mtdna yet near eastern/Eurasian in origin. The indigenous north african components clusters with people outside of Africa rather than with people inside Africa.Human Genetic Ancestral Component. Levantine caucasoids includes the Egyptians.Egyptians are genetically middle easterners while Berbers are “more” North African(tho Eurasian in origin too)."It certainly changes the way that we think about the ancient Egyptians being actually very closely related to the Near East. So genetically they're a Near Eastern population; they're not an African population, if you define African as sub-Saharan Africa," Krause said.WERE EGYPT'S ANCIENT PAHRAOHS EUROPEAN? Published: 05/31/2017 at 7:44PM http://www.wnd.com/2017/05/were-egypts-ancient-pharaohs-european/The ancestors of the ancient Egyptians diverged partly from the ancestors of today's middle easterns somewhere in the near east more than 5,000 years ago where such ethnic designation didn't exist. The reason why the ancient Egyptians and middle east cluster very closely to one another is because of shared ancestry in the late neolithic/early bronze age Levant where the ancient Levantines were less west asian admixed. That's why today's and the ancient Egyptians cluster very closely with their Levantine neighbors like the Palestinians rather than to Berbers who had diverged from the ancestors of both Europeans(iberians) and Levantines much more early thus forming their own unique genetic cluster in the western Eurasian cluster. North Africans, Berbers and Egyptians are their own people, same as that middle eastern and southern euros are their own. Not some kind of "result" while ofc there was some transition between the (southern) Levant and Egypt same as the maghreb and Iberia in pre neolithic times(mtdna H1 and H3/on both sides of the med region) Ancient Egyptian/coptic for instance is considered it's own ancient branch of Afro-Asiatic.“Egyptian belongs to the family of North African and Near Eastern languages known as Afro-Asiatic or Hamito-Semitic. On the African, or Hamitic side, it is related to Berber and the group of Cushitic and Chadic languages such as Beja [i.e. Bishari] and Hausa, and on the Asiatic side to Akkadian, Hebrew, Arabic, and other Semitic tongues. Within this spectrum, Egyptian is both central and unique: it has featured found in North African and Semitic languages but is closely allied to neither group” (Allen, 2008: 189).So with this said, Egyptians are related to other caucasoid groups, Levantines, North African Berbers through the Eurasian back flow ancestry related to these groups. They all speak languages belonging to the same afro asiatic linguistic tree and tend to have high levels of genetic relatedness. They are Caucasoid, a term used in Forensic Science to describe the indigenous peoples of Europe, North Africa, Middle East& some parts of Asia. So basically, from a ‘forensics’ standpoint, or post-mortem for instance, the skull of typical deeply-rooted ethnic mediterranean and middle eastern people would be recognized as a “Caucasoids” remains. There are ways that they can tell this, in many or perhaps most cases. Therefore these people are physically Caucasoid mediterranean and indigenous to Africa same as that both west Asian caucasoid and east Asian mongoloid are indigenous to the Asian continent. African is a continent and NOT a country.There is no reason for North Africans to be “black” complexed, its no where near the equator.
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