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What are the laws - Data Protection, Data Transmission and Export and Data Encryption in India to operate a technology platform
The Information Technology Act, 2000 came into force on 17.10.2000 vide G.S.R No. 788(E) dated 17.10.2000 and for the first time, a legal definition of “Computer”, “Data”, “electronic record”, “Information” et al were provided. The said Act gave a legal recognition to the electronic records and digital signatures and in Chapter IX thereof provided for penalty and adjudication. Section 43 of the Act interalia provided that in case of unauthorised access, download or copying or damage to data etc, the person responsible shall be liable to pay damages by way of compensation not exceeding one crore rupees to the person affected.Apart from civil liability provided under Section 43, Chapter XI (Sections 63 to 78) of the Act of 2000 provided for criminal liability in cases of Tampering, Hacking, publishing or transmitting obscene material, misrepresentation etc. Apart from the same, Section 72 of the Act provided for penalty in case of bsignNow of confidentiality and privacy and laid that in case any person who has secured access to any electronic record, Data or information, discloses the same to any other person without obtaining the consent of the person concerned, he shall be punished with imprisonment upto two years or with fine upto Rupees one lakh or with both.However, the provisions of the Information Technology Act, 2000 were not adequate and the need for more stringent data protection measures were felt, the Information Technology (Amendment) Act, 2008 was enacted which came into force on 27.10.2009. The said Amendment Act brought in the concepts like cyber security in the statute book and widened the scope of digital signatures by replacing the words “electronic signature”. The amendment act also provided for secure electronic signatures and enjoined the central government to prescribe security procedures and practices for securing electronic records and signatures (Sections 15-16) The amendment Act also removed the cap of Rupees One Crore as earlier provided under Section 43 for damage to computer and computer systems and for unauthorised downloading/ copying of data. The said Amendment Act also introduced Section 43A which provides for compensation to be paid in case a body corporate fails to protect the data. Section 46 of the Act prescribes that the person affected has to approach the adjudicating officer appointed under Section 46 of the Act in case the claim for injury or damage does not exceed Rupees Five crores and the civil court in case, the claim exceeds Rupees Five crores. The amendment act also brought/ introduced several new provisions which provide for offenses such as identity theft, receiving stolen computer resource/ device, cheating, violation of privacy, cyber terrorism, pornography (Section 66A-F & 67A-C). The amendment act also brought in provisions directing intermediaries to protect the data/information and penalty has been prescribed for disclosure of information of information in bsignNow of lawful contract (Section 72A)With the enactment of the Amendment Act of 2008, India for the first time got statutory provisions dealing with data protection. However, as the ingredients of “sensitive personal data and information” as well as the “reasonable security practices and procedures” were yet to be prescribed by the Central Government, the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology vide Notification No. GSR 313 (E) dated 11th April 2011 made the Information Technology (Reasonable Security Practices and Procedures and Sensitive Personal Data or Information ) Rules, 2011 (the said rules). Rule 3 of the said rules defines personal sensitive data or information and provides that the same may include information relating to password, financial information such as bank account or credit card details, health condition, medical records etc. Rule 4 enjoins every body corporate which receives or deals with information to provide a privacy policy. Rule 5 prescribes that every body corporate shall obtain consent in writing from the provider of the sensitive information regarding purpose of usage before collection of such information and such body corporate will not collect such information unless it is collected for a lawful purpose connected with the function or activity of such body corporate and collection of such information or data is necessary and once such data is collected, it shall not be retained for a period longer than what is required. Rule 6 provides that disclosure of the information to any third party shall require prior permission from the provider unless such disclosure has been agreed to in the contract between the body corporate and the provider or where the disclosure is necessary for compliance of a legal obligation. The Body corporate has been barred to publish sensitive information and the third parties receiving such information have been barred to disclose it further. Rule 7 lays down that the body corporate may transfer such information to any other body corporate or person in India or outside, that ensure the same level of data protection and such transfer will be allowed only if it is necessary for performance of lawful contract between the body corporate and provider of information or where the provider has consented for data transfer. Rule 8 of the said rules further provide reasonable security practises and procedures and lays down that international standard IS/ISO/IEC 27001 on “Information Technology- Security Techniques- Information Security Management System- requirements “ would be one such standard.The Ministry of Communication and Information Technology further issued a press note dated 24th August 2011 and clarified that the said rules are applicable to the body corporate or any person located within India. The press note further provides that any body corporate providing services relating to collection or handling of sensitive personal data or information under contractual obligation with any other legal entity located within India or outside is not subject to requirements of Rules 5 &6 as mentioned hereinabove. A body corporate providing services to the provider of information under a contractual obligation directly with them however has to comply with Rules 5 &6. The said press note also clarifies that privacy policy mentioned in Rule 4 relates to the body corporate and is not with respect to any particular obligation under the contract. The press note at the end provides that the consent mentioned in Rule 5 includes consent given by any mode of electronic communication.Data Protection relates to issues relating to the collection, storage, accuracy and use of data provided by net users in the use of the World Wide Web. Visitors to any website want their privacy rights to be respected when they engage in e-Commerce. It is part of the confidence-creating role that successful e-Commerce businesses have to convey to the consumer. If industry doesn't make sure it's guarding the privacy of the data it collects, it will be the responsibility of the government and it's their obligation to enact legislation.Any transaction between two or more parties involves an exchange of essential information between the parties. Technological developments have enabled transactions by electronic means. Any such information/data collected by the parties should be used only for the specific purposes for which they were collected. The need arose, to create rights for those who have their data stored and create responsibilities for those who collect, store and process such data. The law relating to the creation of such rights and responsibilities may be referred to as ‘data protection’ law.The world’s first computer specific statute was enacted in the form of a Data Protection Act, in the German state of Hesse, in 1970.The misuse of records under the Nazi regime had raised concerns among the public about the use of computers to store and process large amounts of personal data.The Data Protection Act sought to heal such memories of misuse of information. A different rationale for the introduction of data protection legislation can be seen in the case of Sweden which introduced the first national statute in 1973.Here, data protection was seen as fitting naturally into a two hundred year old system of freedom of information with the concept of subject access (such a right allows an individual to find out what information is held about him) being identified as one of the most important aspects of the legislation.In 1995, the European Union adopted its Directive (95/46/EC) of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (hereinafter, the Directive), establishing a detailed privacy regulatory structure. The Directive is specific on the requirements for the transfer of data. It sets down the principles regarding the transfer of data to third countries and states that personal data of EU nationals cannot be sent to countries that do not meet the EU “adequacy” standards with respect to privacy.In order to meet the EU “adequacy” standards, US developed a ‘Safe Harbour’ framework, according to which the US Department of Commerce would maintain a list of US companies that have self-certified to the safe harbor framework. An EU organization can ensure that it is sending information to a U.S. organization participating in the safe harbor by viewing the public list of safe harbor organizations posted on the official website.Data protection has emerged as an important reaction to the development of information technology. In India data protection is covered under the Information Technology Act, 2000 (hereinafter, the Act). The Act defines ‘data’ as, “‘data’ means a representation of information, knowledge, facts, concepts or instructions which are being prepared or have been prepared in a formalized manner, and is intended to be processed, is being processed or has been processed in a computer system or computer network, and may be in any form (including computer printouts magnetic or optical storage media, punched cards, punched tapes) or stored internally in the memory of the computer”. Protection of such data and privacy are covered under specific provisions in the Act. In the recent past, the need for data protection laws has been felt to cater to various needs. The following analyses the position of data protection law with respect to some of the needs.Data Protection Law In Respect of Information Technology Enabled Services (ITES)India started liberalizing its economy in the 1990’s and since then a huge upsurge in the IT business process outsourcing may be witnessed. Financial, educational, legal, marketing, healthcare, telecommunication, banking etc are only some of the services being outsourced into India. This upsurge of outsourcing of ITES into India in the recent past may be attributed to the large English-speaking unemployed populace, cheap labour, enterprising and hardworking nature of the people etc. Statistics have shown that the outsourcing industry is one of the biggest sources of employment. In a span of four years, the number of people working in call centers in the country supporting international industries has risen from 42,000 to 3,50,000. Exports were worth $5.2 billion in 2004-2005 and are expected to grow over 40% this fiscal year. US is currently the biggest investor in Indian ITES, taking advantage of cheap labour costs. Statistics indicate that software engineers with two-years experience in India are being paid about 1/5th of an equivalent US employee.Concerns about adequacy of lawBPO FraudsWith globalization and increasing BPO industry in India, protection of data warrants legislation. There are reasons for this. Every individual consumer of the BPO Industry would expect different levels of privacy from the employees who handle personal data. But there have been situations in the recent past where employees or systems have given away the personal information of customers to third parties without prior consent. So other countries providing BPO business to India expect the Indian government and BPO organizations to take measures for data protection. Countries with data protection law have guidelines that call for data protection law in the country with whom they are transacting.For instance, in, the European Union countries according to the latest guidelines, they will cease to part with data, which are considered the subject matter of protection to any third country unless such other country has a similar law on data protection. One of the essential features of any data protection law would be to prevent the flow of data to non-complying countries and such a provision when implemented may result in a loss of "Data Processing" business to some of the Indian companies.In the recent past, concerns have been raised both within the country as well as by customers abroad regarding the adequacy of data protection and privacy laws in the country. A few incidents have questioned the Indian data protection and privacy standards and have left the outsourcing industry embarrassed. In June 2005, ‘The Sun’ newspaper claimed that one of its journalists bought personal details including passwords, addresses and passport data from a Delhi IT worker for £4.25 each. Earlier BPO frauds in India include New York-based Citibank accounts being looted from a BPO in Pune and a call-center employee in Bangalore peddling credit card information to fraudsters who stole US$398,000 from British bank accounts.UK's Channel 4 TV station ran broadcast footage of a sting operation exposing middlemen hawking the financial data of 200,000 UK citizens. The documentary has prompted Britain's Information Commissioner's Office to examine the security of personal financial data at Indian call centers.In the absence of data protection laws, the kind of work that would be outsourced to India in the future would be limited. The effect of this can be very well seen in the health-care BPO business, which is estimated to be worth close to $45 billion. Lack of data protection laws have left Indian BPO outfits still stagnating in the lower end of the value chain, doing work like billing, insurance claims processing and of course transcription. Besides healthcare, players in the retail financial sector are also affected. Financial offshoring from banks is limited because of statutory compliance requirements and data privacy laws protecting sensitive financial information in accounts. In the Human Resource (HR) domain, there are many restrictions on sharing of personal information. In the medical domain, patient history needs to be protected. In credit card transactions, identity theft could be an issue and needs to be protected. Companies in the banking, financial services and insurance (BFSI) sector and healthcare have excluded applications/processes which use sensitive information from their portfolio for offshoring till they are comfortable about the data protection laws prevalent in the supplier country.Since there is lack of data protection laws in India, Indian BPO outfits are trying to deal with the issue by attempting to adhere to major US and European regulations. MNCs have to comply with foreign Regulations so that they don’t lose on their international partners. There are problems involved in this. Efforts by individual companies may not count for much if companies rule out India as a BPO destination in the first place in the absence of data protection law.Today, the largest portion of BPO work coming to India is low-end call centre and data processing work. If India has to exploit the full potential of the outsourcing opportunity, then we have to move up the value chain. Outsourced work in Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)-intensive areas such as clinical research, engineering design and legal research is the way ahead for Indian BPO companies. The move up the value chain cannot happen without stringent laws. Further, weak laws would act as deterrents for FDI, global business and the establishment of research and development parks in the pharmaceutical industry.Looking to the above scenario, we can say that for India to achieve heights in BPO industry stringent laws for data protection and intellectual property rights have to be made. . Thus, a law on data protection on India must address the following Constitutional issues on a "priority basis" before any statutory enactment procedure is set into motion:(1) Privacy rights of interested persons in real space and cyber space.(2) Mandates of freedom of information U/A 19 (1) (a).(3) Mandates of right to know of people at large U/A 21.Once the data protection rules are enforced in India, companies outsourcing to India are unlikely to dismantle the systems they have in place straightaway, and move data more freely to India. Hence ,the need for data protection laws would win over the confidence of international business partners; protect abuse of information; protection of privacy and personal rights of individuals would be ensured; there would be more FDI inflows, global business and the establishment of research and development parks in the pharmaceutical industry & impetus to the sector of e-Commerce at national and international levels would be provided.Data protection law in India (Present status):-Data Protection law in India is included in the Act under specific provisions. Both civil and criminal liabilities are imposed for violation of data protection.(1) Section 43 deals with penalties for damage to computer, computer system etc.(2) Section 65 deals with tampering with computer source documents.(3) Section 66 deals with hacking with computer system.(4) Section 72 deals with penalty for bsignNow of confidentiality and privacy. Call centers can be included in the definition of ‘intermediary’and a ‘network service provider’ and can be penalized under this section.These developments have put the Indian government under pressure to enact more stringent data protection laws in the country in order to protect the lucrative Indian outsourcing industry. In order to use IT as a tool for socio-economic development, employment generation and to consolidate India’s position as a major player in the IT sector,amendments to the IT Act, 2000 have been approved by the cabinet and are due to be tabled in the winter session of the Parliament.Proposed amendments:-The amendments relate to the following[22]:(i) Proposal at Sec. 43 (2) related to handling of sensitive personal data or information with reasonable security practices and procedures.(ii) Gradation of severity of computer related offences under Section 66, committed dishonestly or fraudulently and punishment thereof.(iii) Proposed additional Section 72 (2) for bsignNow of confidentiality with intent to cause injury to a subscriber.It is hoped that these amendments will strengthen the law to suffice the need.Data Protection Laws In Order To Invite ‘Data Controllers’.There has been a strong opinion that if India strengthens its data protection law, it can attract multi-national corporations to India. India can be home to such corporations than a mere supplier of services.In fact, there is an argument that the EU’s data protection law is sufficient to protect the privacy of its people and thus lack of strong protection under Indian law is not a hindrance to the outsourcing industry. To enumerate, consider a company established in EU (called the ‘data controller’) and the supplier of call center services (‘data processor’) in India. If the data processor makes any mistake in the processing of personal data or there are instances of data theft, then the data controller in the EU can be made liable for the consequences. The Indian data processor is not in control of personal data and can only process data under the instructions of the data controller. Thus if a person in EU wants to exercise rights of access and retrieve personal data, the data controller has to retrieve it from the data processor, irrespective of where the data processor is located. Thus a strong data protection law is needed not only to reinforce the image of the Indian outsourcing industry but also to invite multi-national corporations to establish their corporate offices here.Data Protection And TelemarketingIndia is faced with a new phenomenon-telemarketing. This is facilitated, to a large extent, by the widespread use of mobile telephones. Telemarketing executives, now said to be available for as low as US $70 per month, process information about individuals for direct marketing. This interrupts the peace of an individual and conduct of work. There is a violation of privacy caused by such calls who, on behalf of banks, mobile phone companies, financial institutions etc. offer various schemes. The right to privacy has been read into Article 21, Constitution of India, but this has not afforded enough protection. A PIL against several banks and mobile phone service providers is pending before the Supreme Court alleging inter alia that the right to privacy has been infringed.The EC Directive confers certain rights on the people and this includes the right to prevent processing for direct marketing. Thus, a data controller is required not to process information about individuals for direct marketing if an individual asks them not to. So individuals have the right to stop unwanted marketing offers. It would be highly beneficial that data protection law in India also includes such a right to prevent unsolicited marketing offers and protect the privacy of the people.Data Protection With Regard To Governance And PeopleThe Preamble to the Act specifies that, the IT Act 2000, inter alia, will facilitate electronic filing of documents with the Government agencies. It seeks to promote efficient delivery of Government services by means of reliable electronic records. Stringent data protection laws will thus help the Government to protect the interests of its people.Data protection law is necessary to provide protection to the privacy rights of people and to hold cyber criminals responsible for their wrongful acts. Data protection law is not about keeping personal information secret. It is about creating a trusted framework for collection, exchange and use of personal data in commercial and governmental contexts. It is to permit and facilitate the commercial and governmental use of personal data.The Data Security Council of India (DSCI) and Department of Information Technology(DIT) must also rejuvenate its efforts in this regard on the similar lines. However, the best solution can come from good legislative provisions along with suitable public and employee awareness. It is high time that we must pay attention to Data Security in India. Cyber Security in India is missing and the same requires rejuvenation. When even PMO's cyber security is compromised for many months we must at least now wake up. Data bsignNowes and cyber crimes in India cannot be reduced until we make strong cyber laws. We cannot do so by mere declaring a cat as a tiger. Cyber law of India must also be supported by sound cyber security and effective cyber forensics.Indian companies in the IT and BPO sectors handle and have access to all kinds of sensitive and personal data of individuals across the world, including their credit card details, financial information and even their medical history. These Companies store confidential data and information in electronic form and this could be vulnerable in the hands of their employees. It is often misused by unsurplous elements among them. There have been instances of security bsignNowes and data leakages in high profile Indian companies. The recent incidents of data thefts in the BPO industry have raised concerns about data privacy.There is no express legislation in India dealing with data protection. Although the Personal Data Protection Bill was introduced in Parliament in 2006, it is yet to see the light of day. The bill seems to proceed on the general framework of the European Union Data Privacy Directive, 1996. It follows a comprehensive model with the bill aiming to govern the collection, processing and distribution of personal data. It is important to note that the applicability of the bill is limited to ‘personal data’ as defined in Clause 2 of the bill.The bill applies both to government as well as private enterprises engaged in data functions. There is a provision for the appointment of, “Data Controllers”, who have general superintendence and adjudicatory jurisdiction over subjects covered by the bill. It also provides that penal sanctions may be imposed on offenders in addition to compensation for damages to victims.The stringency of data protection law, whether the prevailing law will suffice such needs, whether the proposed amendments are a welcome measure, whether India needs a separate legislation for data protection etc are questions which require an in-depth analysis of the prevailing circumstances and a comparative study with laws of other countries. There is no consensus among the experts regarding these issues. These issues are not in the purview of this write-up. But there can be no doubt about the importance of data protection law in the contemporary IT scenario and are not disputable.
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What are some must have Android apps?
Edit: I wrote this answer for “must have Android apps” but these are same apps which have changed the way I used to live my life. Each and every App has helped me in one or the other way. I hope you will also find them helpful and a bit life changing. So here is the list: 10. Psiphon For those who use WiFi with proxy settings. So Psiphon bypasses and tunnel the websites or app through a different IP Address. 9. Mirror It's a simple app to record your mobile screen. Based on the concept of CamStudio in PC where you can record your screen, Mirror offers recording of your Mobile screen. 8. NTES- National Train Enquiry System If you are from India and you want to know the running status, cancelled train (partial or fully), Live Station and other features, this App is a must have. 7. VOLT Simple but effective for those who want to learn new vocabulary. That's too obvious, then why not others? Coz here you get the “memory key” which helps you relate the words and easier to remember them. 6. Parchi It a note making app. But here’s a catch. You can view, review, edit and add right from your lockscreen without need to open the app. Isn't that amazing! I personally find this app very useful. 5. edX If you are student or a learner who wants learn something new everyday, and cannot afford to go in the prestigious institutions like MIT, Harvard University, Cambridge, IITM, etc ten it is a must have app. Enroll yourself in any course and Bazinga!! You are ready to learn from the most amazing professors. Similar to edX, we have Coursera. 4. Walnut Manage your expenses on your finger tips. Its easier then that. It shows you your monthly expenditure, ATM locations, bill remainders and many more features. Its a must have app. 3. CamScanner Everyone doesn’t own a scanner but most of us have camera. So click the pic, upload to CamScanner and voila you are done. You have the scanned copy of your documents, notes, Marksheet and upload them on your DigiLocker. 2. inshorts Till now you all must be knowing this app. The tagline is also simple “News in 60 words” and trust me it is worth having. In this “I don't have time” world, you need news to be fast and accurate so here it is. 1. DigiLocker If you have this app then you don’t need to carry your personal documents like driving license, Adhar card, voter ID card, or even your Marksheets. Keep them safe in actual locker and leave the rest to your DigiLocker. And the best part is that it is acceptable as the original ones at every governmental or non governmental institution because it is developed under Digital India initiative. That's it for the day. Thank you and Enjoy !!! Update 1: Today I came across two new apps which I found useful. Hope it would help you all. 1.Forest : Stay focused Features • A self-motivated and interesting way to help you beat phone addiction • Stay focused and get more things done • Share your forest and compete with friends • Track your history in a simple and pleasant way • Earn reward and unlock more tree species • Customize your whitelist : Leaving Forest and using apps in whitelist won’t kill your tree. 2. Swachh Bharat Toilet Locator Swachh Bharat Toilet Locator is specifically useful for Indians who're committed for Swachh Bharat. Update 2: So I am back with yet another interesting app for you all. And trust me it is worth hanving. You are bored just go through it and kaboooom !!! You are into a black hole. Enjoy the ride. 3. Curiosity It is the latest app I installed but got addicted to it. It’s exactly works like its name, generates a curiosity which inturn increases your knowledge. It covers a large field of scope from Humanity to science to faith and many more. This app deserves more snapshots but why to increase the length of my answer. Comment below if you think the list should be updated? Thank you.
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How has Surya Namaskar benefitted you?
I am a Practitioner of Surya Namaskar for the past several decades. I have been practicing Surya Namaskar from my childhood, though without understanding any deeper significance of the same. I am writing this note from my personal experience. I can confidently vouch for the immense benefits of Surya Namaskar.During childhood and early part of life, I used to do it as part of our Sanskar. We had a religious attitude towards this practice. In India, in many households, a child is taught to practice Surya Namaskar as an essential part of his daily routine. We used to consider it as a particular form of Surya worship with bonus benefits of the good health and memory gain.Surya Namaskar literally means salutation to the Sun. Sun is considered as a symbol of the Soul of the Universe and Source of Life.By Surya Namaskar we are evoking the physical, mental and spiritual energies which are latent in us by vividly visualizing the external Sun in physical form as well as in our mind and activating our inner energy field through an esoteric principal of correspondence.The hermetic maxim “As above, so below; as below so above” well explains this principle.This esoteric principle embodies the truth that there is always a Correspondence between the laws and phenomena of the various planes of Being and Life. It gives us a way of solving many a dark paradox, and hidden secrets of Nature. We need to understand that there are planes beyond our knowing. When we apply the Principle of Correspondence to them we are able to understand much that would otherwise be unknowable to us. This Principle is of universal application and manifestation. It is applicable on the various planes of the material, mental, and spiritual universe. It is a Universal Law. Our ancient spiritual scientists (Rishi) have discovered this principle and applied it by designing various rituals and kriyas. Surya Namaskar is one such example.After reading about it in books and later on through online sources, I came to know about the immense interest it has generated in scientific community and general population world over. I have discovered that Surya Namaskar is a ‘SMART POWER CAPSULE’ of Yoga, Psychology and Esoteric Science. We can call it Ashtanga Yoga – Yoga having eightfold aspects – sort of. In this fast paced world with paucity of quality time, it offers immense benefits packed in just 10 minutes of practice. Therefore it perfectly ‘fits’ into our tight schedule.In this note, I will not dwell on the historical origin and religious aspect of this practice. Curious reader can refer to the source material given at the end for quenching his thirst. Instead, let us focus on the direct benefits Surya Namaskar offers to us in our Life.Let me clarify some mis-conceptions about Surya Namaskar.1 Surya Namaskar is neither restricted to the Hindu religion alone, nor it is completely a-religious practice. It is a Supra-Religious practice. By the term ‘Supra-Religious’ I mean it is a religious practice which is not restricted just to the confines of Hindu religion. It is religious practice of the whole humanity. Persons of all faith – Hindu, Christian, Jews, Islam – can practice this Kriya as a part of Universal Religion of Humanity. I will explain how.2 Surya Namaskar is not just a ‘physical posture’ – Asana. It is that and much more. It is a sort of Kriya Yoga.3 Surya Namaskar is not just an activity impacting our physical body. It involves our mental processes as well as having spiritual aspects. Surya Namaskar helps in rapidly accelerating spiritual development and engendering a profound state of tranquility and God-communion.4 The Mantra to be chanted while performing Surya Namaskar are an essential part of the whole Kriya for getting best results. One can however translate it into his own language.Occult SecretThe occult secret of the Surya Namaskar is the most important aspect of this whole process, which if followed meticulously and scientifically will result in tremendous benefits surpassing all the other benefits.Let us take an example of mobile phone. We have three ingredients in its functioning :1 The hard wired electronic gadget2 Electricity to make it function3 Wireless Frequencies to signNow out4 Internet Portals to get activated and respond to our messages5 Human being to signNow out to other person and communicate with him, to signNow online sources like Quora and receive useful knowledgeSurya Namaskar works in a similar manner1 We have yogic postures which are similar to the electronic gadget2 We have specific breathing techniques to make this occult principle work. To VIVIFY this instrument, to enliven it, to animate it.3 We have special evocative mantra to be chanted while doing the physical posture of Surya Namaskar. These Mantras are of specific vibrations which set in motion occult principles of action4 We have various types and degrees of Occult Powers in the Higher Planes of Universe. These are like Internet Portals.5 We have an emotional, conscious and living human being who signNow out these powers and invoke their potentialities into his being. This he does by consciously living in the meaning of these mantras and their corresponding emotional states as is explained in the note that follows. This is the most important and crucial part. Without this part, Surya Namaskar will become a mechanical process without the real cream of the benefit. We need to meditate on the meaning of the Mantra and its esoteric meaning while doing its respective physical posture.All the five elements mentioned above has to be performed in a very precise and ‘fully involved’ manner. Our body, mind and spirit must be fully absorbed in this process. As a final culmination, at its apex level, we signNow out the source of all life and energy and abundance in this universe, the highest authority, the President of our Universe - Surya. At this stage we enliven the Spiritual Sun in our inner being as a direct reflection of the Sun in the Universe.Health benefits of Surya YogaIt has signNow effects on the respiratory, cardiovascular, cardiorespiratory and autonomic nervous systems. It positively impacts on respiratory muscle activity, ventilation efficiency, chemoreflex and baroreflex sensitivity, heart rate variability, blood flow dynamics, respiratory sinus arrhythmia, cardiorespiratory coupling, and sympathovagal balance.Surya Namaskar has a close association with endocrine system of our body through Chakra. Out Endocrine System plays a vital role in our health and well being. It is part of the biological control mechanism. It comprises of a number of ductless glands that produce the hormones, acting as chemical messengers, that are secreted into the bloodstream from particular organs to stimulate or inhibit physical processes. By adjusting the hormone levels, the endocrine system works to maintain the body in a state of optimum health.Chakra SystemThe Chakras are linked with the glands responsible for creating the hormones. Tthe positions of the Chakras correspond to the positions of the glands in the endocrine system and have an effect on their functioning. We need to keep a balance in our emotional and mental state. In today’s stressful lifestyle, stress is a main culprit in much of our ill health and immune system. The stress affects our energy field which in-turn affects the Chakra. This imbalance of Chakras disturbs the perfect synchronization of interior and exterior rhythms of human energy field and universal energy field. The practice of Surya Namaskar not only restores this balance, it also re-energize our Chakra.Our physical body is a mammoth reservoir of energy field. Much of this energy is remaining latent, unexplored, unused. A continuous energy exchange takes place between the environment and the human body. Chakras are ‘transponder gadget’ for metaphysical and biophysical energy of the human body. Through the practice of Surya Namaskar, we activate these Chakra (I am using the word ‘Chakra’ in singular as well as in plural form. I feel that the common practice of its plural form ‘Chakras’ is wrong) and open them.Esoteric Aspects of Surya NamaskarEvery position and action in Surya Namaskar has its esoteric interpretation which reveal deeper significance of spiritual universe.Samasthiti AsanaWe start with Samasthiti Asana. It gives us a sense of balance as the Sanskrit name signifies.Anjali MudraWe then pay homage to the Cosmic Consciousness with Anjali Mudra. We seek its blessings and evoke it to descend and be planted in human wombHasthpadasanaOur hands and feet are our main organs of work and execution (karmendriya). By touching the earth by our hand we signify that I have taken birth on the Earth to fulfill my karmic debt.PrasarithautanasanaAs a soul in fetus remembers his previous births and makes promise to Lord, I look up at the Celestial Beings and reinforce my journey in this life on Earth.When I stretch my neck, I signify that I confirm my faith in my evolution.Chaturdhandasanasignifies 4 pillars of life – Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. It is also four stages of my life – Ashrama – Brahmacharya, Grahastha, Vanaprastha and at the end Sanyasa.KokilasanaI go the vicissitudes of life easily and happily with the lightness of a bird.MeruasanaI am firmly rooted in life with the strength and stability of a mountain.Mukha BhastrikaAs with deep breathing I clean my lungs from dirt, all my past Karma is also cleansed.Prasarita UttanasanaI am now filled with a sense of gratitude. I am now looking at all the pervading space of Shiva and reinforce my evolutionary journey. Like my position in the Prasarita Uttanasana, I am stretched from life to death. Just as my body is half erect, I am midway between life and death.Hasthpadasana –Getting back to Hasthpadasana, I again pay my respect to the mother Earth. My physical body is an integral part of the mother Earth.Anjali MudraI am now paying my homage to the Supreme Consciousness.Samasthithi Asana –I am now getting to an elevated state of balanceMy salutations to Sun who is my Guru. May he dawn in me the wisdom of ages.Sanskrit Mantra to be chanted and their esoteric significance1. ॐ मित्राय नमः। Om Hram mitraya namaha Salutations to the Friend of all. Sun is my Friend. He is there to help me and support me and remove my loneliness in the world. He is the source of all life. The first position, pranamasana, embodies the attitude of reverence to the source of all life. The sun is regarded as the universal friend, endlessly giving light, heat and energy to support this and all the other planets.2. ॐ रवये नमः। Om Hrim ravaye namaha Salutations to the Shining One. He brings light in my life and show me path towards my mission in a shining light. Ravaye means one who shines and offers divine blessings upon all life. In the second position, hasta utthanasana, we stretch our whole being upwards towards the source of light to receive these blessings.3. ॐ सूर्याय नमः। Om hroom suryaya namaha Salutations to One who induces activity. He brings me energy and helps me in moving on my Path full of enthusiasm and passion. Here the deity Surya is saluted who represents the sun’s dynamic aspect. In ancient vedic mythology Surya was worshipped as the Lord of the Heavens, pictured crossing the sky in his fiery chariot, drawn by seven horses. This is a beautiful analogy interpreting the seven horses as seven rays or emanation of the supreme consciousness, which manifests as the seven planes of existence: blu (earthly, material), bhuvar (intermediate, astral), suwar (subtle, heavenly), mahar (the abode of the devas), janah (the abode of divine souls who have transcended ego), tapah (the abode of enlightened siddhas) and satyam (the ultimate truth of reality). Surya symbolizes the supreme consciousness itself, which controls all these planes of manifestation. Surya is regarded as the most concrete of the solar gods, one of the original vedic triad - his place being in the sky - while Agni (fire) is his representative on earth.4. ॐ भानवे नमः। Om hraim bhanave namaha Salutations to the One who illumines. He illumines my inner world and removes darkness of ignorance from my heart. The sun is the physical representation of the guru or teacher who removes the darkness of our delusions, just as the darkness of the night is removed with every dawn. In the fourth position, ashwa sanchalanasana, we turn our face towards this illumination and pray for an end to the dark night of ignorance.5. ॐ खगाय नमः। Om hraum khagaya namaha Salutations to the One who moves swiftly. He is my charioteer and enables me to move quickly towards my goal. It is the sun’s daily movement through the sky which is the basis of our measurement of time, from the earliest use of a sun dial to the sophisticated devices used today. In parvatasana, we offer obeisances to the one by whom time is measured and pray for progress in life.6. ॐ पुषणे नमः। Om hraha pushne namaha Salutations to the Giver of Strength and Nourishment. He gives me vitality and force which is ever increasing. He keeps me in good health. The sun is the source of all strength. He nourishes us with energy, light and life. We offer respects in ashtanga namaskara by touching all the eight corners of our body to the ground. In essence we are offering our whole being in the hope that he may bestow mental, physical and spiritual strength and nourishment upon us.7. ॐ हिरण्यगर्भाय नमः। Om Hram hiranya garbhaya namaha Salutations to the Golden Cosmic Self. He brings me wealth and prosperity. I get reborn into the womb of gold. Hiranyagarbha is also known as the golden egg, resplendent as the sun, in which Brahma was born as the manifestation of Self-existence. Hiranyagarbha is the seed of causality, thus the whole universe is contained within Hiranyagarbha in the potential state prior to manifestation. In the same way, all life is potential in the sun, which represents the great cosmic principle. We offer respects to the sun in bhujangasana, the seventh position, pyaying for the awakening of creativity.8. ॐ मरीचये नमः। Om Hrim mareechaya namaha Salutations to the Lord of Dawn. He brings new hope in the darkness of my mind. He inspires me for the bright days ahead. Maricha is the name of one of Brahma’s sons. Similarly, rays of light are produced from the sun. It also means mirage. In our whole life we seek after a true meaning or purpose. We are like a thirsty person who seeks water in a desert but is fooled by mirages dancing on the horizon, produced by the sun’s rays. In the eighth position, parvatasana, we pray to distinguish between the real and the unreal.9. ॐ आदित्याय नमः। Om hroom adityaya namaha Salutations to Son of Aditi, the Infinite Cosmic Mother. Aditi is the mother of the Gods. She is also the mother of all twelve zodiacal spirits from whose cosmic matrix the heavenly bodies were born. As celestial mother of every existing form and being, the synthesis of all things, she is associated with space (Akasa) and with the mystic speech (Vac). She is also seen as a feminized form of Brahma and associated with the primal substance (mulaprakriti).10. ॐ सवित्रे नमः। Om hraim savitre namaha Salutations to the Lord of Creation. Savitre is known as the stimulator; the arouser.. He also also represents the same posture, padahastasana. Savitre is said to represent the sun before rising, stimulating and arousing man into waking activity, and Surya is said to represent the sun after sunrise, which activity begins. Therefore, in the tenth position, padahastasana, we salute Savitre to obtain the vivifying power of the sun.11. ॐ अर्काय नमः। Om hraum arkaya namaha Salutations to the One who is Praiseworthy. Arka also means “energy”. The sun is the source of most of the energy in the world we know. In the eleventh position, hasta utthanasana, we are offering respects to this source of life and energy.12. ॐ भास्कराय नमः। Om hraha bhaskaraya namaha Salutations to the One who leads to Enlightenment. In this final salutation we offer respects to the sun as a symbol of the great revealer of all transcendental and spiritual truth. He lights up the pathway leading to our ultimate goal of liberation. In the twelfth position, pranamasana, we pray that this pathway may be revealed to us.As you might have noticed, I have omitted the Bija Mantra in Sanskrit Script from above Sanskrit Mantra for the sake of avoidance of mis-pronouncing the same.13. ॐ श्रीसवित्रसूर्यनारायणाय नमः। Om Shri Savitur Suryanarayanaya Namah At the end of these 12 positions a thirteenth mantra is recited 'Om Shri Savitur Suryanarayanaya Namah'. This is a sort of concluding Mantra. It is a comprehensive Mantra of all the above 12 Mantra. We conclude this process by a master mantra as॥ आदित्यस्य नमस्कारन् ये कुर्वन्ति दिने दिने आयुः प्रज्ञा बलम् वीर्यम् तेजस्तेशान् च जायते ॥It means “Those who perform Surya Namaskar daily enjoy abundance, long life, intelligence, strength, valour, good health and shining glory”Physical Postures and their health benefitsPosture 1 The first posture is Pranamasana This posture stimulates the respiratory system, exercises shoulder, back and neck muscles.Posture 2 The second posture is Hasta Utthanasana This posture promotes digestion, exercises arms and shoulder muscles, tones the spine and promotes flexibility of the back and hips.Posture 3 The third posture is Padahastasana This posture promotes blood circulation, tones abdominal tracts, stretches the back and leg muscles, stimulates spinal nerves and lymphatic system.Posture 4 The fourth posture is Ashwa Sanchalanasana This posture exercises the spine, strengthens hand and wrist muscles.Posture 5 The 5th posture is Parvatasana This posture Stimulates blood circulation, strengthens the heart, strengthens wrist and arm muscles, relieves neck and shoulder tension.Posture 6 The sixth posture is Ashtanga Namaskaara This posture Strengthens leg and arm muscles, increases flexibility in neck and shoulders, stretches arms, shoulder, neck and back muscles, exercises back muscles, releases tension in neck and shoulder.Posture 7 The seventh posture is Bhujangasana This posture Stimulates circulation to abdominal organs, tones digestive tract, stretches upper and lower body, promotes flexibility in the back, stimulates nerves in Lower the buttocks and hips.Posture 8 The 8th Posture is Parvatasana The benefits are the same as posture 5.Posture 9 The posture 9 is ashwa sanchalanasana The benefits are the same as posture 4.Posture 10 The posture 10 is Padahastana and the benefits are the same as posture 3.Posture 11 Posture 11 is Hasta Utthanasana and the benefits of this asana are the same as posture 2.Posture 12 Posture 12 is Pranamasana and the benefits are the same as posture 1.Tantra in Surya Namaskar - Bija MantraIn Vedic tradition, “Bija Mantra” are used as tools for the expansion and widening of one’s mind by utilizing the power of sound vibrations. “Mantra” is a Sanskrit word made up of two syllables: “man” (mind) and “tra” (liberate). Thus in its most literal translation the word “Mantra” means “to liberate one’s mind”. In Sanskrit a “seed” is called “Bija.” The word “Mantra” when translated by virtue of its practical use relates to a sound that can “create transformation.”Certain sounds which cannot be translated into a literal meaning but have the power to create great transformative growth and expansion in humans at the physical, emotional and spiritual levels are known as “Bija” or Seed Mantra.Great level of accuracy of pronunciations is needed in order to make these Bija Mantra effective. These Bija Mantra were considered as TOP MOST SECRET in order to avoid its misuse. They are like nuclear power. In order to pass them down through generations without revealing their explicit existence distinctly, they were camouflage in other words. These Bija Mantra are not invented by any human being. They have directly descended from their respective deity.ह्रां , ह्रीं , ह्रूं , ह्रैं , ह्रौं , ह्रः , ह्रां , ह्रीं , ह्रूं , ह्रैं , ह्रौं , ह्रःThese Bija Mantra have their own unique ‘signature’ in terms of acoustic vibration patters which are ‘designed’ to cause specific effect in the physical as well as in the astral world. Any misuse will cause harmful effects by the working of the pure laws of tantra. It is something like the process of ‘enriching of uranium’. This enriched uranium can be used for the benefit of mankind in production of electrical energy or it can be used for destructive purposes in the form of Atom Bomb.As you have seen from above, Surya Namaskar have much ‘evocative’ power. In order to get full benefits, I recommend following preliminaries to be followed1 Morning time upto 9 am is most beneficial.2 Taking bath and becoming fresh is needed.3 The ground should be clean. It is recommended that you personally, physically clean the floor with broom. Even if the floor is clean, still do it as a token.4 Do NOT use any Yoga mat or carpet. It is essential that your feet should be in direct contact with the Earth.5 Face East towards the rising Sun6 Except morning hot tea, coffee or milk, nothing else should be eaten. Empty stomach is needed.7 Do not play any background music.8 The place should be airy. It is recommended that you do it in an open place if possible.9 Give some time in practicing for a correct pronunciation of the Mantra. You are at liberty to use the translation in your own language, instead of the Sanskrit Mantra as given below. Do it meditating on the meaning as explained above. However, I will still recommend that for full benefits you chant the original Sanskrit Mantra. After practicing for millennia through antiquity, these Mantra have ‘engraved’ a channel in the cosmic world tapping the infinite source of energy therein. Using this same channel in the form of these Mantra saves us time in doing our own engraving hard work.10 Take help from a practitioner in doing correct physical postures. This is very essential.In conclusion, I will say that Surya Namaskar is a fantastic super power packed all inclusive yogic-cum-tantric-cum-spiritual practice which will definitely produce beneficial results in just 10 minutes of your time every day. It will be beneficial even without getting into the nitty gritty of their meanings, analysis, etymology and grammar. Even an illiterate person can immensely benefit from its practice.Happy Thought and Be BlessedReferencesIndian Express (4 September 2010)..Carol Mitchell (2003). Yoga on the Ball. Inner Traditions. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-89281-999-7.Jane MacMullen (1988). Yoga Journal: Ashtanga Yoga. September/October. Active Interest. pp. 68–70.Krishan Kumar Suman (2006). Yoga for Health and Relaxation. Lotus. pp. 83–84. ISBN 978-81-8382-049-3.Mark Singleton (2010). Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice. Oxford University Press. pp. 180–181, 205–206. ISBN 978-0-19-974598-2.Donahaye, Guy (2010). Guruji: A Portrait of Sri K Pattabhi Jois Through The Eyes of His Students. USA: D&M Publishers Inc. ISBN 978-0-86547-749-0.Ramaswami 2005, p. 213-219.Singleton 2010, p. 176.Mark Singleton (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-539534-1, page 124Mark Singleton (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-539534-1, pages 180-181, 205-206Alter 2000, p. 99.Alter 2004, p. 23.S.P.Sen, Dictionary of National Biography; Institute of Historical Studies, Calcutta 1972 Vols.1-4; Institute of Historical Studies, vol 3, p.307Royal India: A Descriptive and Historical Study of India's Fifteen Principal States and Their Rulers By Katherine H. Diver, Maud Diver, (year 1942)Ref : Donna Schuster (1990). Yoga Journal. October-November. Active Interest. p. 57Video - Physiological Biological Explanation from Medical ScienceScientific Research into the benefits of Surya Namaskar : http://medcraveonline.com/SMDIJ/...The physiological effects of slow breathing in the healthy humanhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc...http://www.iamj.in/posts/images/...http://www.esotericonline.net/gr...http://icyer.com/documents/SN_es...
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What is the strongest fictional metal or material? Why?
Unobtainium: They just don't make it like that any more.Since the first tales of gods and myths, there have been legends of devices crafted, machines made, engines imagined that have been considered the strongest, most powerful, most durable devices in creation. It is the cornerstone of many such tales.And since everyone of them has some legend where their smiths created the ultimate weapon, comparing them is basically a fool's errand. So rather than engage in random and useless comparison, let's travel through myth, legend, storied lore, four colored wonders, as well as far-flung futures and see some of these mythically-indestructible materials or devices.Legendary Mythic MetalsOrichalcum (variously spelled orichalcon, orihalcon or orichalc): a metal first appeared in Plato's version of the Atlantis myth. The name means "mountain copper" in Greek, and it, indeed, often appears the color of copper or bronze. Orihalcum's properties vary heavily from source to source: sometimes its schtick is strength, sometimes it's high value, sometimes it's magic resistance, sometimes it's room-temperature superconductivity. Sometimes it floats.Atlantis : a legendary city which was reputed to have sank beneath the waves in ancient times.Cold Iron (variously called cold steel, wrought iron, magnetic iron and so on) is the traditional bane of The Fair Folk. Precisely what constitutes cold iron varies from source to source, such as being forged without heat, forged by hand, being ferromagnetic, possessing trace amounts of iridium, literally being cold, and so on. In some legends being struck with iron had a poisonous effect on the Fey, in some, even being in the same area as cold iron could be dangerous.Adamant, any impenetrably or unyieldingly hard substance; a legendary stone of impenetrable hardness, formerly sometimes identified with the diamond.Origin of adamant: Middle English, Old French, Latin, 900 AD. before 900; Middle English < Old French adamaunt < Latin adamant-(stem of adamas) hard metal (perhaps steel), diamond < Greek,equivalent to adamant- verbal adjective of damân to tame, conquer; replacing Old Eng. athamans (< Medieval Latin) and Middle English aymont < Middle French aimant < Vulgar Latin *adimant- < LatinAdamant in the Bible(Heb. shamir), Ezek. 3:9. The Greek word adamas means diamond. This is not referred to, but corundum or some kind of hard steel. It is an emblem of firmness in resisting adversaries of the truth (Zech. 7:12), and of hard-heartedness against the truth (Jer. 17:1).Legendary Indestructible WeaponsLegends abound with indestructible weapons. Here are just a few of the more well-known magical swords.Excalibur:Having many names and sometimes confused with the Sword in the Stone, the legendary Excalibur was often referred to as a Blade of Light.Impossibly light and durable, having Excalibur and its attendant scabbard made a warrior a killing machine unable to die from his wounds.Inspiration of Medieval Language & Literature: The Song of Roland (Batlle of Roncesvalles Pass, 778)DurendalDurendal (most likely from the French "durer," "to endure") is the sword of Charlemagne's paladin Roland in the literary series known as the Matter of France.In The Song of Roland, Durendal is said to contain within its golden hilt one tooth of Saint Peter, blood of Saint Basil, hair of Saint Denis, and a piece of the raiment of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and to be the sharpest sword in all existence.Roland attempted to destroy the sword to prevent it from being captured by the attacking Saracens but Durandal proved indestructible, so he hid it beneath his body along with the oliphant, the horn used to alert Charlemagne.In the poem, Roland uses the sword to hold off a hundred-thousand-strong Muslim army long enough for Charlemagne's army to retreat into France.KusanagiKusanagi-no-Tsurugi (草薙の剣?) is a legendary Japanese sword and one of three Imperial Regalia of Japan. It was originally called Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi (天叢雲剣?, "Sword of the Gathering Clouds of Heaven") but its name was later changed to the more popular Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi ("Grass Cutting Sword").Found in the tail of a great beast by the god Susanoo-no-Mikoto it was presented to the goddess Amaterasu to settle an old grievanceIn the reign of the Twelfth Emperor, Keikō, Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi was given to the great warrior, Yamato Takeru as part of a pair of gifts given by his aunt, Yamato-hime the Shrine Maiden of Ise Shrine, to protect her nephew in times of peril.These gifts came in handy when Yamato Takeru was lured onto an open grassland during a hunting expedition by a tsignNowerous warlord. The lord had fiery arrows loosed to ignite the grass and trap Yamato Takeru in the field so that he would burn to death. He also killed the warrior's horse to prevent his escape.Desperately, Yamato Takeru used the Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi to cut back the grass and remove fuel from the fire, but in doing so, he discovered that the sword enabled him to control the wind and cause it to move in the direction of his swing.Taking advantage of this magic, Yamato Takeru used his other gift, fire strikers, to enlarge the fire in the direction of the lord and his men, and he used the winds controlled by the sword to sweep the blaze toward them. In triumph, Yamato Takeru renamed the sword Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi (lit. "Grasscutter Sword") to commemorate his narrow escape and victory.Super-metals of the DC UniverseKryptonianIn the Silver Age of the DC Universe, Krypton was one of most sophisticated worlds in the DC Universe. A world so incredible that anything created there was virtually indestructible once it was under a yellow sun. (Don't think about it. The writers of the era didn't and it was fine.)Superman rocket he came to Earth in was was undamaged upon traveling across space and it delivers baby Kal-el to Earth without a scratch despite its crash landing.Martha Kent was said to have unwoven the fabrics he was wrapped in and rewoven them into his only costume. The costume was indestructible except to Kal-El's heat vision, which was how she was said to have cut the material, when necessary.These two pages are from Superboy v1 #169, October 1970.In this version of the character, baby Kal-El was so hard on his clothing due to his powers manifesting as a child, he was unable to wear anything except materials woven from those fabrics. (I am not making this up.)This explanation was made as part of a series called the Superboy Legend. This was a common thing done during the period because the comics were both numerous and often had unconnected (and sometimes conflicted) stories. This was one of the early attempts to help readers keep up.This was not an imaginary story. It was written in the canon to explain how Superman's costume came to be nigh-invulnerable. The above pencil art is by Superboy artist at the time, Bob Brown, with inks by the famed Wally Wood. Some of the illustrations here, particularly the sequence where Pa shoots and blows up the blankets, are adapted from stories published in much earlier issues of Superboy.Since his costume and cape were practically indestructible, Superman's used his invulnerable cape in a number of ways in early comics.He would use his cape to protect people near him. In this case, molten lava didn't land on Miss Lane, which I am certain she considered a good thing.Superman could use it to hold dangerous materials, toxic chemicals or to protect innocents from a rain of bullets when a broad chest wasn't quite broad enough. It was pretty handy to have around when a nuclear weapon had to be contained, too.He also used it to protect passengers from the effects of friction from his passage through the atmosphere at super-speed. He would also wrap passengers, both to protect them and to maintain the anonymity of his Fortress of Solitude, in the Arctic.Superman Airlines: It's fast. It's cheap. But the accommodations make "coach" seem absolutely spacious compared to flying "mummy-wrapped."Supermanium, named for its inventor, was introduced in World's Finest #41 (Jul-Aug 1949), a prison created to contain the menace of Brainiac.According to Superman (Volume 1) #167, Superman forged it out of the heart of a star, which implied its durability was related to its molecular density.It would also make it the heaviest prison anywhere since collapsed stellar matter would be incredibly dense and highly radioactive...Supermanium's more famous appearance was in the emergency vehicle Superman created when the threat of losing his powers from a nearby red sun supernova required he create his most inauspicious vehicle, the Supermobile. Yes, it has robotic arms with super-strength and it can replicate Superman's vision powers and has an onboard computer and television.This is the Supermobile. Don't think too much about it. You'll forget it eventually. Almost every comic reader has, at least up till now. Even Superman fans pretend it didn't happen.From the isle of ThemysciraAmazonium was the name of a metal used for the construction of Wonder Woman's Bracelets of Submission. These bracelets, created by Aphrodite were to remind them of the cruel submission the Amazons suffered under Heracles. In the classic tales of Wonder Woman, binding the bracelets together removed an Amazon's abilities.The bracelets have thus far proven indestructible and able to absorb the impact of incoming attacks, allowing Wonder Woman to not only deflect automatic weapon fire, energy blasts and other projectile weaponry (Wonder Woman Vol. 1 #52, 1952)Speaking of Wonder Woman, her golden lasso was reforged from the Girdle of Hera and reputed to be all but indestructible. While the material used for its creation is never named, its magical powers include immediate submission to the will of the wielder, the ability to force the person entangled to tell the truth and the ability to change its length to whatever Wonder Woman needs it to be.In the current era of the DC Universe, (New 52) Wonder Woman is a demigod and her bracers are still indestructible (as well as a whole lot heavier) and used to bind her godlike powers, allowing her to remove them and become more powerful and more uncontrolled as long as they are removed.New Wonder Woman is scary. Really, really scary.Modern depictions of Wonder Woman indicate her sword and shield are both god-forged weapons, made by the smith-god Hephaestus and are (by his admission, alone) indestructible. Granted, there is no way to tell for certain but all of his devices are incredible durable and in the case of Wonder Woman we have seen her use said armor and weapons against other powerful magical beings such as Ares and Hades to good effect. So we can safely assume a great degree of durability due to their magical enhancement and manufacture. Did I mention it was sharp enough to carve atoms apart?It can cut Kryptonians too. Ask Faora and Zod. I would say it’s plenty sharp if not completely indestructible.ThanagarNth Metal (also called ninth metal) is a special metal found in the DC Universe. Native to Thanagar, the home planet of Katar Hol and Shayera Thal. The material possesses a number of special abilities and can take on both mystical and technological properties depending on who's using it.Among the unusual properties of Nth metal is the ability to negate gravity, allowing a person wearing an object, such as a belt, made of Nth Metal to fly. In addition, Nth metal also protects the wearer from the elements and speeds the healing of wounds, increases their strength, and protects them from extremes in temperature.Hawkgirl's mace emitted an energy field which disrupted technology and magical energies.In its animated appearance in Justice League and Justice League Unlimited, Nth metal is transuranic iron with an atomic number of 676, possesses innate anti-magical properties, is hyper-conductive and is able to invert mesons and gravitons. Hawkgirl could us it to disrupt magical attacks and magical beings.Earth (You know what it looks like)Promethium is the name given to two metal alloys: "Depleted" and "Volatile" Promethium.Depleted promethium was invented and patented by Steve Dayton of Dayton Industries. Promethium alloyed with titanium and vanadium it forms a nearly-indestructible metal."But son, I made you out of promethium, the strongest man-made metal on Earth!" Okay, Cyborg didn't take to his condition very well in the beginning.The weapon-master, Arsenal (formerly Speedy, the archer sidekick of Green Arrow), wore protective armor which comprised depleted promethium armor. The metallic components of the Justice League member Cyborg (Victor Stone), are made from depleted promethium. Victor Stone's limbs were capable of exercising superhuman strength and durability.He got better. He's a member of the Justice League. Attitude adjustment!"Volatile" Promethium is capable of absorbing energy in proportion to its mass without loss of efficiency. Depending on the volume of the material, it can be used to generate and absorb a near-limitless amount of energy.Both metals are seemingly difficult to manufacture and thus supplies are limited. Deathstroke, the Terminator, uses volatile promethium in his weapons and has been known to charge them before his missions adding to their deadly profile.30th Century, Legion of SuperheroesWelcome to the 30th century. So clean. So sterile. No trees, no grass. No soul...Inertron is a fictional metallic substance found in the DC Comics Legion of Super-Heroes universe. It is the hardest, densest substance in the DC universe, and is often used by the Legion of Super-Heroes in the 30th century. The first mention of inertron was in Adventure Comics #336.Inertron is frequently described as indestructible and impenetrable, but this applies to beings and technologies based in human strength norms. Kryptonians and Daxamites have been show to be able to break inertron if they push themselves to the limits of their strength.However, reinforced inertron structures (like prisons) can resist even their formidable strength. Karate Kid once managed to, using his formidable super-martial arts techniques, to break a set of shackles formed from inertron.A strange fact: Inertron has been eaten by 30th century residents of Bismoll of whom Matter-Eater Lad is a known representative of the species. As you can probably tell from his name, he is able to somehow, inexplicably, and I mean never to my scientific curiosity or satisfaction consume any kind of matter, at superhuman speed, without waste products, or surplus energy output while retaining a human shape in all overall appearance.The Silver Age was an age of wonders. You wonder what they were using. You wonder how long they were high. You wonder how these books made it past an editor with a straight face. An age of wonders...A member of the Legion of Unfortunately Named Heroes, Matter-Eater Lad's signature power was eating anything between him and freedom.Matter-Eater Lad once ate inertron. The most indestructible metal in the known universe. He also ate the indestructible, miraculous Miracle Machine. This was the first time he ate something that didn't agree with him.See kids, even a lame power like matter-eating can come in handy to save the universe under the right conditions. I know this is what you're doing when you think of a superhero based on this idea. I look like this when I think about the Bismolleans.How do you imprison Bismolleans? Are they a society of perfectly well-adjusted non-criminal citizens?Do Bismolleans need toothbrushes? I mean do they even have teeth? What exactly happens from inside their gumline to their "digestive tract?"Do they use antacids, er...anti-radioactives when they have an upset "whatever passes for their super-nuclear furnace" region in their mouth?Screw that: What kind of atomic nightmare is taking place in side of Bismolleans? Are they most radioactive members of the United Federation of Planets?Why aren't we powering our star-cruisers on directed energy-Bismollean power supplies? (Besides the inhumanity and monstrous reality of such an incredibly powerful energy source running on garbage and Bismollean misery...) How do we know the UFP doesn't already run this way?Charlton Universe (now a subset of the DCU)Shazamium, Marvelium and Sivanium: highly adaptable and mutable metal capable of storing fantastic levels of magical energy. Used in numerous schemes by the nefarious Dr. Sivana.The largest supply of this strange magical metal, was held by the wizard, Shazam. First appears in Captain Marvel #100.Ancient Earth TechHumans went from primitive stone tools to space age metallurgy over a period of 200,000 years.Those periods are often broken up into the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the Iron Age and the Industrial Age, which takes the best of all of the previous technologies.I focused on weapons because that seems to be where human innovations almost always seem to be highly focused and result oriented. (Such a sad statement...)Weapons without MetalBronze Age Swords (Introduction)Iron Age swordsMaking Damascus SteelJapanese SwordsmithingModern MetallurgyModern metallurgy has taken the knowledge of previous eras and created using new discoveries on the periodic table to create new and harder and stronger metals than ever before.Maraging steels are used in jet enginees and other technologies needing strength, durability and heat tolerance.Maraging steelsMaraging steels (a portmanteau of "martensitic" and "aging") are steels (iron alloys) that are known for possessing superior strength and toughness without losing malleability, although they cannot hold a good cutting edge. Aging refers to the extended heat-treatment process.These steels are a special class of low-carbon ultra-high-strength steels that derive their strength not from carbon, but from precipitation of intermetallic compounds. The principal alloying element is 15 to 25wt.% nickel.Secondary alloying elements are added to produce intermetallic precipitates, which include cobalt, molybdenum, and titanium.Inconel Exhaust ManifoldInconelInconel is a family of austenite nickel-chromium-based superalloys. The name is a trademark of Special Metals Corporation, a wholly owned subsidiary of Precision Castparts Corp.Inconel alloys are oxidation and corrosion resistant materials well suited for service in extreme environments subjected to pressure and heat. When heated, Inconel forms a thick, stable, passivating oxide layer protecting the surface from further attack.Inconel retains strength over a wide temperature range, attractive for high temperature applications where aluminum and steel would succumb to creep as a result of thermally induced crystal vacancies. Inconel’s high temperature strength is developed by solid solution strengthening or precipitation strengthening, depending on the alloy.An extremely hard metal, this tungsten rotary burr set is used to shape softer substances (meaning anything that isn't tungsten...) Tungsten carbide burr sets get excellent ratings from the craftsman crowd.Tungsten carbideTungsten carbide (chemical formula: WC) is a chemical compound (specifically, a carbide) containing equal parts of tungsten and carbon atoms.In its most basic form, tungsten carbide is a fine gray powder, but it can be pressed and formed into shapes for use in industrial machinery, cutting tools, abrasives, armor-piercing rounds, other tools and instruments, and jewelry.Tungsten carbide is approximately two times stiffer than steel, with a Young's modulus of approximately 530–700 GPa, and is much denser than steel or titanium.It is comparable with corundum (α-Al2O3) in hardness and can only be polished and finished with abrasives of superior hardness such as cubic boron nitride and diamond powder, wheels, and compounds.TitaniumTitanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, vanadium, and molybdenum, among other elements, to produce strong, lightweight alloys for aerospace (jet engines, missiles, and spacecraft), military, industrial process (chemicals and petro-chemicals, desalination plants, pulp, and paper), automotive, agri-food, medical prostheses, orthopedic implants, dental and endodontic instruments and files, dental implants, sporting goods, jewelry, mobile phones, and other applications.The two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and the highest strength-to-density ratio of any metallic element. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, but less dense.There are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant (73.8%). Although they have the same number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table, titanium and zirconium differ in many chemical and physical properties.Super Metals of the Marvel Universe (Earth-616)Marvel's canon Earth-616 is rife with imaginary metals and metallic alloys. Most of these have nothing to do with real science and everything to do with comic hyperbole.The short list includes:Proto-Adamantium: The adamantium-vibranium found uniquely within Captain America's shield (now with added Uru!) A device so unusually durable, it has only been broken a handful of times in its entire existence.In any case where it shouldn't have been broken, it was later retconned and a facsimile was being broken instead. It has only failed against magical beings who were wielding the Odin-force, an all-powerful magic, and the source of the Asgard's mystical might. The shield also failed against the Thanos when he was using the Infinity Gems.The shield's greatest strength is its nearly immutable nature and resistance to being damaged or changed. The process used to create adamantium requires the material be brought together, shaped and within a fixed amount of time before setting.The process used to create Captain America's shield was similar to the normal process of adamantium development with the inclusion of vibranium. The process was lost and therefore unable to be repeated.I accept this is the origin of Captain America's shield BUT:Thanks to a sleepy scientist and a time traveler from the future...I mean what we are to expect, some vibranium found its way into the secured locked lab when it wasn't there before?And with the mysterious addition of vibranium, we create a device which has been at the center of dozens of temporal events which changed the future.Nobody, Tony Stark, Reed Richards, or Doctor Doom have tried to figure out why they can't recreate Captain America's shield because...what? It would give Stark or Doom the perfect impenetrable armor, resistant to everything in the universe?Why wouldn't Reed Richards want to sit around for a few weekends with Cap's shield and learn how it was made so he could make everything he wants to keep COMPLETELY INVULNERABLE? Isn't that worth a weekend or two, Reed?When you can't get Proto-Adamantium (and you can't, I tried), you end up with the next most amazing thing: Adamantium.Adamantium is incredibly hard to come by, can be used to coat normal metals to enhance their durability as well. Almost impossible to make on Earth-616, process is limited to a select few corporations. Most notably found in Ultron's nigh-indestructible carapace. It can also be found coating Doctor Octopus' tentacles increasing their durability and strength.Yes, this android which is beating both Thor and Wonder Man like ugly step-children. Ultron is coated in Adamantium making his super-strength even more formidable, because he can put his back into every swing. No stress fractures on him...no strings either.Secondary Adamantium: When you can't afford real adamantium, you make, buy or steal this. Nearly as good, far more durable than normal metallic alloys, very, very expensive.Adamantium Beta: Wolverine's Skeleton and claws are made from this. Unique to Wolverine or any mutant fitted with secondary adamantium which is somehow altered by their regenerative properties (There's at least a couple - Lady Deathstrike, Sabertooth - see, I named two.) Don't think any more about it. Impenetrable metal worn down by regeneration powers... Here you go ladies, a picture of Hugh Jackman as Wolverine.Vibranium A: A metallic substance which absorbs vibrational energy, once found exclusively in the African kingdom of Wakanda. It was of extraterrestrial origins. The Wakandan stockpile was recently destroyed before Marvel's soft reboot in Secret Wars 2015.While not as durable as Adamantium, it is a very resilient alloy and can be very durable particularly when it comes to absorbing incoming kinetic energy attacks. Vibranium A makes for great body armor and can allow a properly fitted wearer to fall great distances without injury. Black Panther once wore a uniform fitted with a variety of vibranium technologies for his protection.Vibranium B: Also known as anti-metal, which destroys metallic bonds even in adamantium. Black Panther used to have claws made from it. This material was found exclusively in the Savage Land.Uh. I forgot to mention the Savage Land has dinosaurs. And mutants. And Humans running around with saber-toothed beasts. Some guy name Ka-Zar...In the Marvel Cinematic UniverseCaptain America's shield in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (Earth-199999) is NOT indestructible; far from it.Created by Howard Stark from a vibranium alloy, the MCU shield is very tough but nowhere near as durable as Captain America's shield in the comics. With sufficient force or continued bombardment, a shield composed of only vibranium can be destroyed as the vibranium destabilizes.VibraniumVibranium is not as hard or dense as Adamantium, but it is still very durable. The apparent observable vibratory rate of the molecules of the Vibranium itself does not noticeably increase when the Vibranium absorbs mechanical energy.The outside vibratory energy is stored within the bonds between the molecules making up the Vibranium. As a result, a chunk of Vibranium which had absorbed a considerable amount of vibratory energy would be exceedingly hard to demolish.If enough force were were applied to this chunk to smash it, the Vibranium would explode, releasing much of the absorbed energy in a fashion similar to a large multi-megaton bomb.Captain America's MCU shield is composed singularly from a vibranium-metallic alloy. Durable, tough, damage resistant, capable of taking a hit from even Mjolnir, but far weaker than the comic version of Cap's shield.Runner-Ups after Adamantium for durabilityCarbonadium: Carbonadium is a resilient, unstable metal that is vastly stronger than steel; think of it as a synthetic and poor man's adamantium, very durable but also radioactively toxic as well. Must have a healing factor to use this metal. Most commonly associated with Omega Red. (above)You might want to duck. Mjolnir coming through!Enchanted uru is not made or normally found on Earth and is both more resistant to damage than normal uru metal but it is not indestructible.It's durable and can be enchanted to be even more damage-resistant but its primary benefit is the ability to bind amazing enchantments to it. Thor's hammer, Mjolnir, is made of from it; hard to come by, even in Asgard, dwarves horde it.The titanic tussle between two titans who terrorize timid tenants: Hercules, Prince of Power versus the Mighty Thor.Adamantine: To be fair to Marvel's Olympians, I will also include Adamantine, the material Hercules' Golden mace is was forged from. In the Marvel Universe, adamantine is a mystical metal capable of being enchanted and having its durability enhanced through mystical/scientific forging by Hephaestus, the smith of the Olympian gods.Iron Man Armors: - composed of metallic and ceramic-enhanced alloys allowing for durability, these armors can have their strength and durability further enhanced by charging it with electrical energies and integrated force fields.Osmium: A real metal, it makes this list because Colossus, the Living Juggernaut's mutant power is to transform into a being composed of an organic or living form of this dense and resilient metal.Cosmically-Enhanced Materials in the Marvel UniverseIn the current iterations of the Marvel Universe, the nature of the most powerful materials would be similar to the nature of the technological capabilities of the species; more advanced species would likely have better metallurgical technologies.In addition to better metallurgy these species may be able to infuse materials with energy, reinforcing the material's strength, resilience and durability.Adding to this mixture, concepts such as nanotechnology, memory materials, programmable matter and other meta-material science means such species have an unknowable advantage over species without such advancements.Their armors may be self-repairing, adaptable to varying environmental conditions on their own and maybe even self-aware, able to compensate against threats without direction from its wearer.Beings who have mastered all of the universes fundamental forces, matter and energy manipulation making them with the proper scientific knowledge to create the penultimate meta-materials. These entities include the Elders of the Universe, the Stranger and the the armor of the Space gods, the Celestials.Galactus, Scourge of Worlds, was ancient when the Universe was new. He forged his current armor from materials in this universe and except for in the presence of matter manipulation entities whose powers rival his own, his armor is impenetrable.Since Galactus imbues his heralds with a segment of the Power Cosmic, they too have some ability to create nearly indestructible materials either as armor or weapons unable to be affected by beings with lesser technologies. This includes the Silver Surfer's surfboard and the ax and armor of Terrax the Tamer.Galactus created the Silver Surfer, so it's safe to say the Silver Surfer is highly resistant to damage, considering his job duties and the potential threats he faces, he needs to be. Skirting black holes, wormholes, and stars, the Surfer's metallic skin is one of the toughest surfaces imaginable.Since Galactus and the Surfer both possess matter transmutation and advanced scientific capacity they can create or alter matter to make the strongest materials in the Universe. Other cosmic beings can likely create similar near-ultimate materials.This may also include unique weapons of the local god-like beings associated with Earth, such as Odin's spear, Gungnir.In the Marvel Universe, just because a particular metal ranks well, does not mean it cannot be damaged. With sufficient force, magic, technology or knowledge, almost anything can trump anything else, hence the reason Thor and the Hulk manage to damage anyone and everyone on this list at least some of the time.RingworldRingworld is a 1970 science fiction novel by Larry Niven, set in his Known Space universe and considered a classic of science fiction literature. Niven later added four sequels and four prequels. These books tie into numerous other books set in Known Space. Ringworld won the Nebula Award in 1970, as well as both the Hugo Award and Locus Award in 1971.General Products Hull:In Larry Niven's fictional Known Space universe, General Products is a Pierson's Puppeteers company which produces various spacecraft components.The most famous (and most profitable) items produced by General Products are General Products hulls, which are advertised as being impervious to anything apart from visible light (as defined by wavelengths visible to any of the species which are customers of General Products), antimatter, and gravity.The hulls are advertised as being capable of passing through the upper atmosphere of a star without damage, although the contents may become overcooked (but see below for a solution to this problem).The company even offers a guarantee that, should anything harm you within a General Products hull as a result of a failure of these specifications, you (or your estate) will receive a very large sum of money ("tens of millions" of "stars" in the event of a death, with a "star" having value roughly equivalent to one United States dollar in the middle of the 20th century).In the history of General Products this indemnity has been claimed only once, by Gregory Pelton, whose hull failed under extremely unusual circumstances (see Flatlander).Scrith:Scrith is the milky-gray translucent, nearly frictionless material that forms the walls and floor of the Ringworld in Larry Niven’s Ringworld.It is said that Scrith was artificially produced by transmutation of matter, and is nearly impervious to most weapons. Scrith absorbs heat and radiation nearly perfectly and can block neutrinos as well as a light year worth of lead.Some amateur scientists postulated Scrith couldn't technically exist since the mathematics to create Ringworld would require Scrith to be stronger than the strong nuclear force! Impossible.This means the Ringworld cannot exist outside of an appropriately-belief suspended environment.Lord of the RingsMithril: was a precious Silvery metal, very lightweight but capable of providing extreme strength in alloys, which was mined by the Dwarves in the deep mines of Khazad-dûm. This was considered a rare gift and extremely strong metal. Highly prized it was rarely seen in hands outside of dwarves.Galvorn: was the shining black metal devised by master craftsman Eöl. It was harder than mithril and nearly impossible to smith by anyone but a master-craftsman. The technique was believed lost when Eöl died.Tilkal: was a unique metal created by the Vala Aulë in the earlier forms of the legendarium.The metal was composed of six different metals that made it extremely strong, hard, bright, and smooth. The light that shown on it and what it was exposed to caused it to vary in color. Only Aulë knew the secret of its manufacture. It was used to bind Melkor for his tsignNowery in the Silmarillion.The Culture (Iain Banks - Consider Phlebas)An artist's representation of the very durable, nearly-living starships of Iain Bank's Culture GSV.General Systems VehicleEach Systems Vehicle was a great space-faring city that represented everything the Culture was socially, technologically, etc.. They built smaller ships, such as General Contact Units, and manned them from their own populations.A General Systems Vehicle (GSV) was the largest and most capable type of Systems Vehicle, and served as the Culture's premier ambassadors. The Culture's capabilities were almost totally mirrored on a smaller scale in a GSV.These titanic vessels house vast populations, factories or defense forces -- each controlled by a trio of extremely powerful artificial intelligences called Minds.These number crunchers do all the heavy lifting while the humanoids in their charge are free to peruse whatever sort of hedonistic or altruistic lifestyle they desire.Star Wars MaterialsWith the lightsaber as the gold standard for damage-dealing in the Star Wars universe, you might be surprised to discover there were numerous metals, compounds and even genetically engineered creatures who could resist a lightsaber's gentle touch.All of these metals, compounds or alloys are resistant to the plasma temperatures of a light-saber, which makes them pretty durable. Most were very rare or expensive and thus found themselves in the hands of soldiers, bounty hunters, warriors and occasionally Jedi and Sith.Lightsaber-resistant materials (Wookiepedia - Star Wars Wiki)Amphistaff: Genetically engineered serpentine creatures that served as the primary anti-personnel weapons of the Yuuzhan Vong.Amphistaffs were one of the most durable objects known, as not even lightsabers could cut through them. When used as a heavy staff, the serpent would endure blow after blow from the Jedi weaponry and remain unfazed.The amphistaff's edge—measured in atoms—slashed through flesh with no resistance. In the blink of an eye, the amphistaff could soften and wind around the lightsaber's blade, its venomous jaws snapping and tearing at the unfortunate victim's face.Because of its organic nature, these creatures were capable of recovering from virtually any wounds. Nigh indestructible, an amphistaff could only be killed by repeated blunt trauma to or removal of the head.Cortosis ore: A very rare, brittle, fibrous material whose conductive properties caused lightsabers to temporarily short out upon contact. This effect made cortosis a useful material for anti-lightsaber melee weapons, though with repeated strikes, a lightsaber could still cut through it. Cortosis, due to its energy resistant properties, was also resistant to blaster fire.Felucian Skullblade: Felucian Skullblades were constructed from the skull and teeth of specific native creatures. These creatures grew trace amounts of Force-reactive crystals, similar to those used in the construction of lightsabers, in their bones allowing weapons constructed from them, when imbued with the Force, to block lightsabers and blaster fire.Mandalorian iron: also known by its Mando'a name of beskar, was a near-indestructible iron ore whose only known source was the Outer Rim world of Mandalore and its moon, Concordia. The Mandalorian warrior culture that inhabited Mandalore mined their planet for beskar, using it in the creation of weapons, armor, and starships, occasionally even selling the rare and valuable metal on the galactic market. A versatile metal, Mandalorian iron could be melded into multiple alloys and forged into various configurations.Mandalorian warriors in trademark armors prepare for their next battle.Neuranium: was a metallic substance used to shield from radiation, and one of the heaviest and densest metals in the galaxy. A millimeter of it could stop most scanners, and it could even temporarily block lightsaber energy. However in order to cover a space as large as a cargo hold, it would be prohibitively heavy and thus inefficient to use.Phrik: was a rare metallic compound that was one of only a few lightsaber-resistant substances known. It was used in the construction of extremely light and durable battle armor as well as melee weapons. On a more extreme scale, at one point in the Galactic Civil War, a container of phrik was able to stay intact when it was on the surface of Alderaan during its destruction. Very rare, very expensive.Songsteel: was an extraordinarily light and luminescent silver metal, used in masterwork swords and staves. The metal was reserved only for the most exquisite of weapons, and was extremely tedious to forge and shape. Songsteel was highly resistant to lightsaber strikes in a manner similar to phrik and cortosis.Ultrachrome: was a metal used as starship armor around the time of the Great Sith War. Silver and superconductive, it reflected blaster and slugthrower weaponry, was heavily resistant to lightsaber attacks, and was immune to metal-eating fungi.Vonduun crab: The vonduun crab was an organism used to shape the vonduun crab armor suits of the Yuuzhan Vong.This list is nowhere near complete..."Pardon the crudity of the model, I didn't have time to paint it or cut it to scale."If you can think of a metal, well-known or interesting artifact or nigh-indestructible technology that should be on this list, write it in the comments with some information on how to find it, what books it came from and if I know anything about it, I will add it to the list. Thanks for reading.
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Which are the frequently asked interview questions for Java Engineers ?
Some of the frequently asked Interview questions for java developers are:1 What is an object ? 2 What is method overriding in java ? 3 What is super keyword in java ? 4 What is method overloading in java ? 5 What is difference between c++ and Java ? 6 What is JIT compiler ? 7 What is bytecode in java ? 8 Difference between method overloading and method overriding in java ? 9 Difference between abstract class and interface ? 10 Why java is platform independent? 11 Difference between this( and super( in java ?12 How to call one constructor from the other constructor ? 13 what are static blocks and static initalizers in Java ? 14 What is method in java ? 15 What is constructor in java ? 17 Difference between Character Constant and String Constant in java ?18 Why main( method is public, static and void in java ? 19 Explain about main( method in java ? 20 What is difference between length and length( method in java ? 21 What is ASCII Code? 22 What is Unicode ? 23 What are constants and how to create constants in java? OOPS24 Explain about object oriented programming and its features? 25 What is Abstraction? 26 What is Encapsulation? 27 What is the difference between abstraction and encapsulation? 28 List out benefits of object oriented programming language? 29 Differences between traditional programming language and object oriented programming language? 30 What is Inheritance? 31 What is Polymorphism? 32 How does Java implement polymorphism? 33 Explain the different forms of Polymorphism 34 What is runtime polymorphism or dynamic method dispatch? 35 What is Dynamic Binding? 36 What is method overloading? 37 What is method overriding? 38 What are the differences between method overloading and method overriding? 39 Can overloaded methods be override too? 40 Is it possible to override the main method? 41 How to invoke a superclass version of an Overridden method? 42 What is super? 43 How do you prevent a method from being overridden? 44 What is an Interface? 45 Can we instantiate an interface? 46 Can we create an object for an interface? 47 Do interfaces have member variables? 48 What modifiers are allowed for methods in an Interface? 49 What is a marker interface? 50 What is an abstract class? 51 Can we instantiate an abstract class? 52 What are the differences between Interface and Abstract class? 53 When should I use abstract classes and when should I use interfaces? 54 When you declare a method as abstract, can other nonabstract methods access it? 55 Can there be an abstract class with no abstract methods in it? 56 What is IS-A relationship in java?57 What is HAS A relationship in java?58 Difference between IS-A and HAS-A relationship in java?59 Explain about instanceof operator in java?60 What does null mean in java?61 Can we have multiple classes in single file ?62 What all access modifiers are allowed for top class ?63 What are packages in java?64 Can we have more than one package statement in source file ?65 Can we define package statement after import statement in java?66 What are identifiers in java?67 What are access modifiers in java?68 What is the difference between access specifiers and access modifiers in java?69 What access modifiers can be used for class ?70 Explain what access modifiers can be used for methods?71 Explain what access modifiers can be used for variables?72 What is final access modifier in java?73 Explain about abstract classes in java?74 Can we create constructor in abstract class ?75 What are abstract methods in java?Type Casting 76 What is TypeConversion? 77 Explain Implicit Conversion/ Widening/Automatic Type Conversion? 78 What is Explicit Conversion/Narrowing/Casting? 79 Can a double value be cast to byte? How to cast double value to byte with help of the example? 80 Can a Boolean primitive value to be converted to any other primitive in java? 81 What is autoboxing and autounboxing? 82 What are advantages of autoboxing and autounboxing? 83 How to cast objects or what is object casting? 84 What is upcasting or downcasting? Exception Handling85 State some situations where exceptions may arise in java?86 What is Exception handling in java?87 What is an eror in Java?88 What are advantages of Exception handling in java?89 In how many ways we can do exception handling in java?90 List out five keywords related to Exception handling ?91 Explain try and catch keywords in java?92 Can we have try block without catch block?93 Can we have multiple catch block for a try block?94 Explain importance of finally block in java?95 Can we have any code between try and catch blocks?96 Can we have any code between try and finally blocks?97 Can we catch more than one exception in single catch block?98 What are checked Exceptions?99 What are unchecked exceptions in java?100 Explain differences between checked and Unchecked exceptions in java?101 What is default Exception handling in java?102 Explain throw keyword in java?103 Can we write any code after throw statement?104 Explain importance of throws keyword in java?105 Explain the importance of finally over return statement?106 Explain a situation where finally block will not be executed?107 Can we use catch statement for checked exceptions?108 What are user defined exceptions?109 Can we rethrow the same exception from catch handler?110 Can we nested try statements in java?111 Explain the importance of throwable class and its methods?112 Explain when ClassNotFoundException will be raised ?113 Explain when NoClassDefFoundError will be raised ?Nested Class & Inner Class114 What are inner classes or non static nested classes in java? 115 Why to use nested classes in java? 116 Explain about static nested classes in java? 117 How to instantiate static nested classes in java? 118 Explain about method local inner classes or local inner classes in java? 119 Explain about features of local inner class? 120 Explain about anonymous inner classes in java? 121 Explain restrictions for using anonymous inner classes? 122 Is this valid in java ? can we instantiate interface in java? 123 Explain about member inner classes? 124 How to instantiate member inner class? 125 How to do encapsulation in java? 126 What are reference variables in java ? 127 Will the compiler creates a default constructor if I have a parameterized constructor in the class? 128 Can we have a method name same as class name in java? 129 Can we override constructors in java? 130 Can Static methods access instance variables in java? 131 How do we access static members in java? 132 Can we override static methods in java? 133 Difference between object and reference? 134 Objects or references which of them gets garbage collected? 135 How many times finalize method will be invoked ? who invokes finalize( method in java?136 Can we able to pass objects as an arguments in java? 137 Explain wrapper classes in java? 138 Explain different types of wrapper classes in java? 139 Explain about transient variables in java? 140 Can we serialize static variables in java? 141 What is type conversion in java? 142 Explain about Automatic type conversion in java? 143 Explain about narrowing conversion in java? 144 Explain the importance of import keyword in java? 145 Explain naming conventions for packages ? 146 What is classpath ? 147 What is jar ? 148 What is the scope or life time of instance variables ? 149 Explain the scope or life time of class variables or static variables? 150 Explain scope or life time of local variables in java? 151 Explain about static imports in java? 152 Can we define static methods inside interface? 153 Define interface in java? 154 What is the purpose of interface? 155 Explain features of interfaces in java? 156 Explain enumeration in java? 157 Explain restrictions on using enum? 158 Explain about field hiding in java? 159 Explain about Varargs in java? 160 Explain where variables are created in memory? 161 Can we use Switch statement with Strings? 162 In java how do we copy objects? Theads163 What is thread in java? 164 Difference between process and thread? 165 What is multitasking ? 166 What are different types of multitasking? 167 What are the benefits of multithreaded programming? 168 Explain thread in java? 169 List Java API that supports threads? 170 Explain about main thread in java? 171 In how many ways we can create threads in java? 172 Explain creating threads by implementing Runnable class? 173 Explain creating threads by extending Thread class ? 174 Which is the best approach for creating thread ? 175 Explain the importance of thread scheduler in java? 176 Explain the life cycle of thread? 177 Can we restart a dead thread in java? 178 Can one thread block the other thread? 179 Can we restart a thread already started in java? 180 What happens if we don’t override run method ? 181 Can we overload run( method in java? 182 What is a lock or purpose of locks in java? 183 In how many ways we can do synchronization in java? 184 What are synchronized methods ? 185 When do we use synchronized methods in java? 186 When a thread is executing synchronized methods , then is it possible to execute other synchronized methods simultaneously by other threads? 187 When a thread is executing a synchronized method , then is it possible for the same thread to access other synchronized methods of an object ? 188 What are synchronized blocks in java? 189 When do we use synchronized blocks and advantages of using synchronized blocks? 190 What is class level lock ? 191 Can we synchronize static methods in java? 192 Can we use synchronized block for primitives? 193 What are thread priorities and importance of thread priorities in java? 194 Explain different types of thread priorities ? 195 How to change the priority of thread or how to set priority of thread? 196 If two threads have same priority which thread will be executed first ? 197 What all methods are used to prevent thread execution ? 198 Explain yield( method in thread class ? 199 Is it possible for yielded thread to get chance for its execution again ? 200 Explain the importance of join( method in thread class? 201 Explain purpose of sleep( method in java? 202 Assume a thread has lock on it, calling sleep( method on that thread will release the lock? 203 Can sleep() method causes another thread to sleep? 204 Explain about interrupt() method of thread class ? 205 Explain about interthread communication and how it takes place in java? 206 Explain wait() , notify() and notifyAll() methods of object class ? 207 Explain why wait(), notify() and notifyAll() methods are in Object class rather than in thread class? 208 Explain IllegalMonitorStateException and when it will be thrown? 209 when wait(), notify(),notifyAll() methods are called does it releases the lock or holds the acquired lock? 210 Explain which of the following methods releases the lock when yield(), join(),sleep(),wait(),notify(), notifyAll()methods are executed?211 What are thread groups? 212 What are thread local variables ? 213 What are daemon threads in java? 214 How to make a non daemon thread as daemon? 215 Can we make main() thread as daemon?Collection Framework216 What is collection ?217 Difference between collection, Collection and Collections in java?218 Explain about Collection interface in java ?219 List the interfaces which extends collection interface ?220 Explain List interface ?221 Explain methods specific to List interface ?222 List implementations of List Interface ?223 Explain about ArrayList ?224 Difference between Array and ArrayList ?225 What is vector?226 Difference between arraylist and vector ?227 Define Linked List and its features with signature ?228 Define Iterator and methods in Iterator?229 In which order the Iterator iterates over collection?230 Explain ListIterator and methods in ListIterator?231 Explain about Sets ?232 Implementations of Set interface ?233 Explain HashSet and its features ?234 Explain Tree Set and its features?235 When do we use HashSet over TreeSet?236 What is Linked HashSet and its features?237 Explain about Map interface in java?238 What is linked hashmap and its features?239 What is SortedMap interface?240 What is Hashtable and explain features of Hashtable?241 Difference between HashMap and Hashtable?242 Difference between arraylist and linkedlist?243 Difference between Comparator and Comparable in java?244 What is concurrent hashmap and its features ?245 Difference between Concurrent HashMap and Hashtable and collections.synchronizedHashMap?246 Explain copyOnWriteArrayList and when do we use copyOnWriteArrayList?247 Explain about fail fast iterators in java?248 Explain about fail safe iterators in java?Serialization249 What is serialization in java? 250 What is the main purpose of serialization in java? 251 What are alternatives to java serialization? 252 Explain about serializable interface in java? 253 How to make object serializable in java? 254 What is serial version UID and its importance in java? 255 What happens if we don’t define serial version UID ? 256 Can we serialize static variables in java? 257 When we serialize an object does the serialization mechanism saves its references too? 258 If we don’t want some of the fields not to serialize How to do that? 259 Explain importance of object class in java? 260 Explain purpose of object class or why object class is super class for all java classes? 261 Explain Object class methods? 262 List methods which can be overrided from Object class? 263 Explain purpose of toString( method in java?Strings 264 Explain Strings in java?265 Difference between Strings and Character Arrays in java?266 Explain importance of String class in java?267 In how many ways we can create Strings in java?268 Explain how to create Strings using String literal and advantages of creating Strings using String literal?Class Loaders 269 What are classloaders and different types of class loaders in java?270 What is BootStrap class loader and how does it works?271 What is Extensions class loader and how does it works?272 What is application class loader and how does it works?273 When an object becomes eligible for garbage collection?274 Who performs garbage collection?275 When does garbage collector run?276 Which algorithm garbage collector uses to perform garbage collection?277 List out different garbage collection algorithms?278 Can we force JVM for garbage collection?279 How to request jvm to perform garbage collection operation?280 Explain the purpose of finalize method in relation to Garbage collection?281 How many times finalize method is called on an Object?282 Once an object is garbage collected can it become signNowable again?283 How to write a code that makes an object eligible for garbage collection?
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What exactly are the criminal acts that Hillary is guilty of?
For a week, I’ve contemplated my worst nightmare: President Trump. That’s what will happen if Hillary is indicted.The FBI announced, yes, they would not be indicting her. She was “extremely negligent.” They concluded — they claim — that these “negligent” things she did don’t amount to criminal conduct.Of course, the statute of limitations is still not passed. The FBI can still indict.But as days turn into weeks, something else has become clear: The GOP is letting this go, because they really don’t want Donald Trump to win this election.Yes, I will vote for Hillary Clinton in November, anywa...
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In an easy explanation, what is a Bitcoin?
In a prison, there are no currencies. No one has access to money of any kind. But a prison, although small, is still a society. And a society needs to trade goods and services. Maybe someone is a barber. This person will cut people’s hair but wants something in return. Something that he can use to later go to his cellmate and give him in return for the book that he wants from him. The cellmate also needs something in return for the book to use for getting himself another book.How do you do this without money?Well, they use cigarettes as a currency. A hair cut is worth 20 packs. A chance to play basketball is worth 10 packs. A book is worth 5 packs and so on. There is a problem. There are not enough cigarettes inside the prison in each person’s hands to be able to do all the transactions. But everyone knows that once a week a new supply comes in. So instead of getting the packs from each other, they start “owing” each other some packs of cigarettes. Joey gets a haircut and he owes the barber 20 packs. The barber gets a book and owes John 5 packs. Once the new shipment comes in, everyone will settle their debts.But how do we keep track of all this?Well, everyone will have to carry a notebook with them. Whenever two people make a transaction, they both write it down in their books. Luke writes “I owe Johnny two packs” and Johnny writes “Luke owes me two packs”. This way we know who owes what to whom. But we all write everything in the same format. One transaction after another. So it becomes a long chain of transactions. If I know how many cigarettes I had at any point and go through the transactions after it, I can figure out how many cigarettes I will have.Last problem: how do we know what people wrote in their books are correct and no one is faking transactions? I can go steal someones book and write a fake transaction in it.Well, to overcome this we assign the wisest most trustworthy person in the prison as a witness. Whenever two people are making a transaction, he has to witness it and sign both books with his own signature. This way, we know that each transaction is witnessed by our trusted person and actually happened.Cigarettes are bitcoin. Notebooks are ledgers. The agreed upon text format in the notebooks is blockchain. The wise persons are bitcoin miners.
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