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FAQs
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How is HelloFax different from EchoSign?
The answer is similar to the Why is Dropbox more popular than other programs with similar functionality? [ https://www.quora.com/Why-is-Dropbox-more-popular-than-other-programs-with-similar-functionality ] question[1], the crux of which is that normal people don't want a Comprehensive Software Solution Package. They want a tool that does something for them. Dropbox: There is a folder and you put files in it. It syncs. HelloFax: You upload a file and sign it. It sends. Let's say you are a harried entrepreneur who is incorporating his/her company, and finds that s/he needs to sign and fax back the final documents. You just want to get this done as fast as possible and you don't want to drive to Kinkos, so you start looking online for a solution. Try going to EchoSign's webpage: http://www.echosign.com/ Now look at HelloFax: https://www.hellofax.com/ Which one looks more intimidating? Do you want an electronic signature solution or do you just want to sign it and be done with this "fax" problem? When someone asks me to fax something back, I don't think "Ah! This situation calls for an electronic signature! A web application that facilitates electronic signatures would be just the ticket!" Instead, I think, "WTF you neanderthal, why do you still have a fax machine?" I just want to get my signature onto that document, which I already have on my computer, and send it off to them. Most people requesting a "fax" will take a PDF via email, which HelloFax can send, or if they really are neanderthals, they will have an actual fax number, and HelloFax can send it there too. That's all I know and understand, and I need a simple service that transparently does this. HelloFax does it; I have no idea if EchoSign can even send something to a fax number or, from their website, exactly what they do[2]. [1] Fun tip: click on the "more" link showing the "votes by" for Michael Wolfe's answer on that page. [2] Edited: Antone Johnson's answer does a good job explaining what EchoSign is all about.
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In your opinion, how are electronic signatures better than handwritten “wet” signatures?
First of all, digital signatures offer a much higher security and convenience factor - most digital signature software out there comes with quite a few encryptions to keep your documents secure, there are digital trails that track every change that happens to the document (such as signature added/removed, or any other alteration), quite a few applications also show a progress bar of how the signing process is going, you can assign signatures, add remarks and stamps - all on your mobile device. There is no need to track the person to get their signature - just wait for them to sign. This is incredibly efficient compared to the ‘wet’ signatures. So, the main factors are security, speed, audit trails, process monitoring and the ability to do all these tasks on the go and on multiple devices/platforms.If you’re in the market for such an application that offers all these features and more, I suggest checking out signNow by Kdan. It’s intuitive, user-friendly and besides being highly secure, it’s a good fit for both small and medium-sized companies, individuals, start-ups and all kinds of businesses. While there is plenty of e-signature software out there, signNow stands out due to its well thought-out tools, well designed and user-friendly interface and it’s multi-platform, so there’s no need to compromise on anything.Disclaimer: I am part of Kdan’s team, and my answers might be a bit biased.
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According to the American experts, which jet fighter is better, the Indo-Russian PAK FA or the Chinese Chengdu-J20?
Note: Both the T-50 PAK-FA and Chengdu J-20 are still in development and subject to change. Although the J-20 is now in service in small numbers with the PLAAF.A hearty thank you to Dan Rosenthal for helping format and construct this answer.While I am no aviation expert, based on what I have read the Russian Sukhoi PAK FA is a much better plane overall than the Chengdu J-20 in the areas of avionics and overall performance. Although the J-20 seems to hold the advantage in overall stealth characteristics.I will explain based on what others have said in three crucial sections.StealthManeuverabilityAvionicsFirst we will compare the two aircraft’s stealth characteristics.Top: an J-20 prototype and below an early T-50 prototype.But in order to discuss their stealth characteristics we need to know what stealth is. Stealth technology or Low Observable technology is the science/technology behind minimizing a vehicle or objects radar, infrared and electronic signature.There are four main methods to reducing a planes radar signature.ShapingMaterials (Use of Radar Absorbent Materials and other materials)Active CancellationPassive CancellationShaping and Materials though are the two most important factors in reducing an aircrafts radar signature and we will talk about those two factors before getting to the comparisons.Stealth aircraft are shaped in such a way as to reflect as little radar waves away from the transmitting radar and not back to it. This design principal also known as Planform Alignment is the most critical part of designing a stealth aircraft and is responsible for most of the reduction of an aircrafts radar cross section (RCS). Other radar reflecting sources like engine fan blades are hidden and the cockpit shaped to reflect radar and treated to further reduce RCS and electronic emissions from escaping.Planform alignment is a technique where the flight surfaces of an aircraft have identical angles that reflect the radar waves away from the source. This allows for aerodynamically viable airframes that are able to maneuver as well as reflect radar waves.[1]Radar Absorbent Materials or RAM are materials that absorbs part of the radar energy and converts it into heat. It works to varying degrees against different radar frequencies. It is used to further reduce the airframes RCS.Both the J-20 and PAK-FA like the American F-22 Raptor feature extensive use of planform alignment, chines, flat surfaces, saw tooth edges and internal weapons storage instead of external. While both currently fall short of the American F-22 Raptor in terms of all round stealth both currently qualify as low observable aircraft. But overall the J-20 has better overall and potential stealth characteristics due to its superior shaping from the sides and below, and the front to some extent. Even with canards which generally tend to have poor low RCS characteristics.[2]Current estimates place the J-20 at a frontal RCS of around .01m^2 as the highest and .001m^2 at the lowest. Far from the F-22A’s .0001m^2 (about that of a honeybee) while the F-35 is intended to have an rcs of .0013m^2. [3] (1)There has been debate as to how much the canards would affect its RCS and while canards may have an adverse affect, they have been used quite well in stealth aircraft before. The McDonnell Douglas X-36, a prototype was quite stealthy despite the canards.Even the early F-35 Lightning II prototypes had canards with no apparent ill RCS affects.Lockheed lift fan being tested at the NASA Ames Research Center during the ASTOVL/SSF/CALF studies [4]Although the canards on those planes are better shaped than on the J-20, with proper treatment of RAM coatings, in flight positioning via flight software laws and even changes to shape that can be mitigated. And the airframe is quite well shaped as stated before.The engine nozzles on the J-20 are also shaped as Low Observable Asymmetric nozzles to better improve rear RCS and treated with RAM and IR reduction measures. The T-50s engine nozzles have not received either treatment. (owing to them being interim engines)Regarding the T-50’s stealth levels, Sukhoi released patent documents detailing its design features. Figures associated with the documents indicate a range of 1m^2 to 0.1m^2 and Piotr Bukowski (Russia'Warplane's Vol. 1) reports 0.3m^2 for the frontal RCS. [5]Others like Air Power Australia[6] have projected the frontal RCS of .01m^2, the overall RCS of a bird. Based on current analysis and from Suhkoi’s published average overall RCS signature of the T-50 of being 1/40th of the SU-35S’s. This makes .01m^2 seem reasonable.[7](Table from: M. Skolnik, “Introduction to radar systems”, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc 1980, page 44. The RCS of the corner reflector is given for a triangular reflector with a length of 1.5 m.[8]The T-50 is quite stealthy from the front and from above but not up to par from the sides, bottom and rear compared to J-20.The lower fuselage of the prototype displays interesting incongruities. There is an abrupt transition between the carefully sculpted faceting of the inlet nacelles, and the smoothly curved aft engine nacelles and conventional aft fuselage. The faceting strategy is similar to the F-22 design rules, with singly or doubly curved transitions between planes (C. Kopp/Sukhoi image). Image courtesy of Air Power AustraliaWhere the PAK-FA falls well short of the F-22A and YF-23 is the shaping design of the lower fuselage and side fuselage, where the general configuration, wing/fuselage join angles, and inlet/engine nacelle join angles. - Air Power Australia, 2010[9]Note the bare metal of the exposed engines in this early prototype. They are terrible for stealth due to both their shape and because metal exposed like that is bad for both RCS and IR.[10]However since the Russians are more of a fan of gradual evolution and incremental improvement (especially in a complex prototype development) things are being changed. In Phase Two of PAK FA development composite cowlings were developed and full RAM coatings are being applied for the first time.Note the white composite cowlings around the engines and the reshaped airbleed doors on T-50–6–2 (-2 meaning it is part of Phase Two of testing)[11]Still their curved shape is not up to par to that of the J-20’s more gentle parallel F-22 like shape. (Although such a redesign could be done to some degree).New Image Edit : 2/19/18However it should be noted that these design choices are still very much a deliberate trade off. They have described the PAK FA as a “Anti-Stealth” aircraft, a plane designed to counter other stealth aircraft. Being more stealthy than any Fourth-generation jet fighter in existence and stealthy enough to allow the PAK-FA to stay undetected long enough to get within weapons range of other stealth fighters.[12] And since it was designed to be more maneuverable than the F-22A, fighting within visual range as fighting between stealth aircraft will be like is where it is designed to excel at. TL:DR the Russians have exchanged some stealth for aerodynamic and kinematic performance.So the winner in stealth between the two is the J-20, but the T-50 despite having a larger overall RCS is no slouch either and is subject to change. The new engines in development for the T-50 are also supposed to improve its stealth characteristics but how that will be achieved remains to be seen. (2) As always things are changing.Edit 2/19/18 : The new Saturn izdeliye 30 aka Item-30 engines have been displayed and recently tested on a Su-57 prototype. Their rear nozzle shaping is saw tooth edged in order to reduce its RCS compared to the smooth engine nozzles of the previous engines. Wither the design incorporates IR reduction designs is still unknown though. (although it does not look like it to me)Video of the flight with the new engine. The new engine is in the left nacelle.The new engine seems to produce quite a bit less smoke.[13]Still, these new engines and their reduced RCS does not change some of the airframes problematic radar cross section from below and the sides.But the only other way to get a better idea of their RCS right now would be to create accurate physical models of the two aircraft and their info on their RAM coatings and subject them to radar tests.Stealth: J-20 > T-50 PAK FANext up is ManeuverabilityDespite having a reduced RCS and missile warning detection systems and other such systems like Electronic Counter Measures (ECM), maneuverability would be important in defeating missiles when engaged. It is likely that fights between stealth aircraft will be at much closer ranges than compared to fighting other aircraft; this would make fast reactions and maneuvering of great importance once a fight is commenced.In order to measure their potential maneuverability characteristics we first need to know how it could be discerned and what we are looking for.We are looking for,Wing Loading (amount of weight divided by the area of the wings)Power to weight ratio (Total engine power (thrust) divided by the aircrafts weight)Generally the lower the wing loading the more maneuverable the aircraft is in the horizontal. The higher the thrust to weight ratio, the more maneuverable the aircraft is vertically and the more energy it can build up. Better acceleration, energy retention and such. Better performance in any one area alone does not tell the whole story, how the aircraft handles is a combination of design attributes.While it is known that the T-50 is planned as a agile multi-role air-superiority fighter the intent of the J-20 remains unknown. The aircrafts use of canards implies an emphasis on maneuverability and high angles of attack capability, as well as its usage of leading edge extensions; but its canard delta design compared to the T-50 or F-22A implies a heavy emphasis on long range due to a generous fuel capacity; which would be useful considering the wide expanses of the Pacific region. How that affects its weight is unknown.It has been speculated due to its design that the J-20 will be more like a theatre strike aircraft. Like a stealthy F-111 Aardvark or proposed F-22B. It would be optimized for long range strike missions into the Pacific Ocean while being capable of dogfighting and being a stealthy interceptor. This would fit into China’s desire to gain and maintain control over the South China Sea and surrounding areas. [14]Estimated unrefuelled combat radius performance for the J-20 as a FB-111A type aircraft.[15]Central battle space vs. Pacific theater. Image Credit: RAND, 2008[16] The PAK FA will probably have similar range to the F-22A, possibly more but probably not to the degree of the J-20.However its full potential performance is reliant on newer engines and the Chinese are behind the Russians in engine technology. The J-20’s in service currently use either the Shenyang WS-10G (which they are still having problems with) or the Saturn AL-31F-M2, both which powered the Sukhoi Su-27’s that both the Russians and Chinese operate. Given the J-20’s estimated weight of between 75,000 and 80,000 pounds (34,019.43 kg - 36,288 kg), it is not fully sufficient.The following are lists of their stats in the related areas.The J-20’sThe PAK-FA even with its current temporary engines[17] which are also 3d thrust vectoring equipped is superior to the J-20 in terms of power to weight ratio and wing loading. While weight can certainly vary from fuel and weapons load, the facts listed apply. As seen in video footage. The PAK FA is superbly agile and quick to accelerate as proven in a number of flights. (Airshow performance alone should be taken in context that it is done with no weapons and minimal fuel, but it does show what the aircraft is capable of and how it handles)Where as the J-20 has only been filmed doing cautious and energy saving maneuvers and fly-by’s.On the other hand, the display manoeuvres appear to have been carefully managed to avoid bleeding too much energy and one gets the impression that even with afterburners, the acceleration is less than impressive. This should not come as too much of a surprise, since jet engine technology continues to be a limiting factor for both Chinese and Russian fifth generation fighter programmes, and as previously mentioned, the J-20 is hardly a lightweight machine.[18](Note this is not including the fact that on the T-50 and J-20 the fuselage of the aircraft is also designed to provide aerodynamic lift but even with this the T-50 will probably be more agile.)Note the J-20’s size.[19] Even if the J-20 can maneuver quite well and sustain high angles of attack as seen above, it is unlikely it will be able to really outmaneuver other 5th gen fighters except possibly the F-35. At least not without more powerful thrust-vectoring engines. The T-50/Su-57 will be able to outmaneuver the J-20 in capable hands, especially with the newer engines developed for it.Maneuverability: J-20 < T-50 PAK FAThe J-20 will be quite maneuverable for its size but that agility has been traded for extra-range and it still lacking due being underpowered.AvionicsAnd lastly in the areas of aircraft avionics, the T-50 most likely holds the advantage. While quite possibly not up to matching those of its US contemporaries, its radars and other systems are mostly likely more advanced than their Chinese counterparts. It should be noted that in the last two decades the Russians have caught up with their American and other Western counterparts in many important avionics systems. They are now capable of manufacturing AESA (Active electronically scanned array) radars like they have on the Mikoyan MiG-35 , although they may not quite be as proficient and as advanced as their Western counterparts.PAK FA AESA maks2009.jpgAESA radars are an important part of modern fighter aircraft, a step up from Passive Electronically Scanned Radars (PESA) and Mechanically Scanned Radars. Since they can operate over many different radar frequencies and project many different scanning and tracking beams simultaneously; this is especially important as they can be designed to operate in Low Probability of Intercept modes (LPI) making them harder to detect, trace and jam.The solid state electronics allow them to create, steer and sweep the radar beams without having to move the radar dish mechanically like old radars. Making them far, far faster in operation and more powerful. (Although they can be combined with mechanical steering in order to expand their coverage angle)They can even track and jam other radars (at the cost of making them visible to others) as the F-35’s AN/APG-81’s did in testing. When it was able to track and jam multiple F-22A’s whose radars were in LPI mode and F-15C’s as well."In a series of tests at Edwards AFB, Calif., in 2009, Lockheed Martin’s CATbird avionics testbed—a Boeing 737 that carries the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter’s entire avionics system—engaged a mixed force of F-22s and Boeing F-15s and was able to locate and jam F-22 radars, according to researchers." - Aviation Week, 2011[20]And even then the their less advanced systems are still far in advance of their Chinese systems. Current mechanically scanned radars on older domestically produced Chinese J-11 Flanker variants are more comparable of those used in American fighters in the 1990’s. It is still not known if the Chinese have been able to build good quality AESA radars, Electronically Scanned Radars, let alone the other advanced systems for aircraft. Although things could have and have most likely changed quite a bit from 2010/2011.[21] But in the absence of any evidence, this is hard to measure. It should however be noted that the Chinese definitely have the greater economic resources and access to advanced electronic technology and the ability to fund its development much more fully compared to the Russians as of now though.And in the absence of a more advanced AESA radar, Sensor fusion and Helmet-mounted display, the T-50 will hold the advantage. The systems used in the T-50 are likely highly upgraded variants used on their latest Flanker aircraft like the Sukhoi Su-35. (Which the Chinese also recently received from Russia)[22] Most likely for the engines provided. (Bets on how well they will be able to reverse engineer the avionics and engines?)And the PAK FA has many sensors and systems.Note the many different radars incorporated into PAK FA.[23] And this is not including things like Missile Launch Warning devices, ECM suites and such. The tech list is extensive.It should be noted that often it will be the development of software for fusing sensor data and other internal systems that is more difficult than developing the airframe, as seen in the difficult development of the F-22 and particularly F-35.[24] The Russians have struggled to catch up and are running into expected difficulties themselves and the Americans have poured billions of dollars into making it work in the complex F-35. In the absence of other information (like export info and evidence) and from historic precedent, it is likely that the Chinese are behind the Russians in this regard.It may take another ten or fifteen years for the Chinese to be able to catch up fully to the Americans these important areas.The image which allegedly describes the number of T/R modules within the J-10B, J-16, and J-20 has been posted on numerous defense forums since at least December of 2013.[25]There is no hard proof of serious Chinese advances in these areas compared to the Russians. Advances yes, as much as the Russians… difficult to determine but probably still behind slightly.The Russians have proven themselves in this area.Avionics: J-20 < T-50 PAK FAOverall both planes are formidable, optimized for the combat envisioned by their leadership and to suit their strategic ends. The J-20 may be stealthier and longer ranged but I would hold the T-50 to be a better fighter aircraft due to its advantages in avionics and kinematic performance.(1) Note that RCS numbers changes with how the aircraft is facing the radar source. For example both the J-20 and PAK FA with their round/slightly altered LO jet engine nozzles sticking out will have a higher RCS signature than from the front. Where as the F-22A with its shielded engines and stealthy shaped engine nozzles allow for the F-22 to be as stealthy as possible from all angles.(2) The new Saturn izdeliye 30 aka Item-30 are new engines for the T-50. There are few details available about the izdeliye 30 engines, but the new powerplant is expected to deliver 24,000 pounds of dry thrust and 39/40,000 pounds of afterburning thrust. The new engine is expected to make its first flight installed on the PAK-FA in the fourth quarter of 2017. It is expected to be more fuel efficient, more reliable, and less expensive than the NPO Saturn izdeliye 117, or AL-41F1.The izdeliye 30 has fewer fan and compressor stages than the 117, thus reducing the number of parts compared to its predecessor.[26] I have read that its smaller size will allow for additional IR shielding and RCS reductions when placed in the T-50. Possibly through recessing it into the airframe and through additional shielding like that of the F-22. I can’t find where I read that though.Footnotes[1] Stealth combat[2] Is Chinese fighter jet Chengdu J-20 a stealth fighter jet? How can canards of a fighter jet reduce its stealthy nature?[3] Threat Analysis of Foreign Stealth Fighters Part I: Chengdu J-20[4] Aircraft Museum - Joint Strike Fighter Pictures[5] Signing Off [6] Assessing the Sukhoi PAK-FA[7] Sukhoi PAK-FA the Anti-Stealth Gamechanger[8] Radar Basics - Radar Cross Section[9] Threat Analysis of Foreign Stealth Fighters Part II: Sukhoi PAK FA[10] The underside of the PAK FA looks sloppy to me. I'm not an aerospace engineer, but don't those vents on the intakes, gaps in the weapons bay doors, and exposed engines kill the RCS? • r/LessCredibleDefence[11] New T-50 prototype, T-50-6-2! (been waiting for it for 3+ years...) • r/aviation[12] Sukhoi PAK-FA the Anti-Stealth Gamechanger[13] Bash the Pak-Fa thread[14] J-20 Stealth Fighter Design Balances Speed And Agility[15] Chengdu J-XX [J-20] Stealth Fighter Prototype[16] The Uncertain Future of America's Raptors - Part I Introduction [17] Russia Testing New Engine for T-50 PAK-FA Stealth Fighter[18] Chinese stealth: What can we learn from the J-20’s Zhuhai debut?[19] Analysis: Chengdu J-20, The Chinese Raptor? | Fighter Sweep[20] Threat Analysis of Foreign Stealth Fighters Part II: Sukhoi PAK FA[21] Chengdu J 20 - Dragon Rage from the east.[22] China Receives First Advanced Su-35 Flankers From Russia[23] Sukhoi PAK-FA the Anti-Stealth Gamechanger[24] PLAAF Fighter Modernization & J-20 Updates[25] The Technological Maturity of Chinese AESA Technology & Strategic Impacts [26] Sukhoi PAK-FA the Anti-Stealth Gamechanger
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Have you considered using e-Signature for your business?
In our modern age, not using such a valuable tool as an e-signature is something that might delay or hinder how you and your business operates. Signing documents on the go, from any place in the world and then faxing, e-mailing or sharing the signed document within seconds not only improves your workflow and speeds things up, it also makes you seem more professional when you give an option of signing documents electronically to your customers and clients, becoming an indispensable part of how you operate. If you’re looking for software that combines document management and an ability to sign documents online, Document 365 Business by Kdan is a good solution. With this software, signing documents is fast and easy, as well as adding stamps and watermarks to all your files. If your business works with PDFs on a daily basis, Document 365 is a great way to help you edit, sign, highlight and split/combine your documents, saving them to the cloud for easy access and sharing with colleagues. This software is also multi-user friendly, making project collaboration/management easy.Overall, using e-signatures in your business is practically a must these days, and with Document 365, taking care of signatures, working with PDFs, scanning paper documents, faxing and sharing while staying secure is a great way to increase your productivity no matter where you are or where you’re working from.Disclaimer: I am part of Kdan’s team and my answers might be a bit biased.
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What have real estate agents found to be the best online tools for getting leads?
Facebook & Instagram are excellent tools for real estate companies to use if they want to make the most of their social media strategy. If you want to promote real estate on Instagram, there are a few important things to consider.Using these social networks to collect leads well involves more than simply posting images regularly. You need to be able to plan and run the right, which means you need to know where to find your audience.Now let me give my personal suggestion on this matter, the best way to collect leads using Facebook & Instagram is the Facebook Lead Ads feature.Why the Facebook lead ads is so important for your brand?Here are the 4 core reasons for a business to choose Lead Ads as your advertising platform:1)It’s cheaper than the traditional types of ads. There’s no doubt that by using Lead Ads you can definitely save money of your advertising budget. Based on our experience we can confirm that using Facebook Lead ads reduces the costs per lead to less than a half of usual spend.2)It creates brand awareness. Facebook, currently the biggest social media platform is the right place to start to build your brand awareness, as makes the whole process of creating your audience and converting it into a lead, as easiest as it can be.3)It saves time. When Facebook presented Lead Ads, they announced it as tap tap done feature, and it literally is like that. It saves user’s time but also yours, as make it fast and easy for you, lead creator to prepare and manage your leads.4)It is a fully customizable tool. In fact, it is possible to customize the form with different fields like: size people business, field of study, etc…when creating an ads campaign.Don’t worry if it is your first time in the Lead Ads world I am happy to suggest to you this free guide, that will help you to learn more about this topic ;)Check out our video to discover 4 instagram tips to boos your real estate marketing strategy !
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What is a good annotation of the Bitcoin white paper?
[BAD EARLY DRAFT - This is being continually revised and updated, with important edits from - I hope - you. If I use your suggestion, I will credit you (unless you prefer otherwise). I especially welcome help from developers, cyrptographers, cypherpunks and other writers. I have not coded since high school.]With your help, the best annotation of the Bitcoin white paper will be below - co-built by you, me and other Quorans working together.Our annotation will be the most informative, most plain English and most entertaining annotation of the Bitcoin white paper.Here we go.Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash SystemPeer-to-peer means you and me and indirectly hints at no centralized entity.Electronic cash system means a way to move money (cash) over the internet. Think PayPal instead of paper dollar bills.Bitcoin is 9 years old and is barely used as electronic cash right now.People HODL (stick their Bitcoin under a virtual mattress), use Bitcoin as a capital flight conduit (from e.g. Venezuelan Bolivar to BTC to USD, Swiss Francs, gold, etc.)As inception, Bitcoin was not intended to be digital gold but maybe it’s destined to be that.This is changing as big exchanges like Coinbase (investor) add SegWit and Lightning.Satoshi Nakamoto satoshin@gmx.com http://www.bitcoin.orgSatoshi Nakamoto is a pseudonym. We still don’t know who wrote the paper. Though the NSA might. How the NSA identified Satoshi Nakamoto – CryptoMuse – MediumAbstract. A purely peer-to-peer version of electronic cash would allow online payments to be sent directly from one party to another without going through a financial institution.The phrases “purely peer-to-peer”, “sent directly” and “without going through a financial institution” strongly suggests the author’s anti-centralization DNA.Digital signatures provide part of the solution, but the main benefits are lost if a trusted third party is still required to prevent double-spending.Now we get at one of the foundational things the paper and the Bitcoin code solves. Bitcoin is a digital asset that I can give you, but if I do that, I can’t give it to someone else because the Bitcoin blockchain code does not permit it.We propose a solution to the double-spending problem using a peer-to-peer network.Bitcoin removes central points of failure.The network timestamps transactions by hashing them into an ongoing chain of hash-based proof-of-work, forming a record that cannot be changed without redoing the proof-of-work.Immutable. No one can change the Bitcoin transaction that happened. At all.The longest chain not only serves as proof of the sequence of events witnessed, but proof that it came from the largest pool of CPU power.Satoshi didn’t foresee the mining pool oligopoly that permeates Bitcoin and most Proof of Work cryptocurrencies today.As long as a majority of CPU power is controlled by nodes that are not cooperating to attack the network, they'll generate the longest chain and outpace attackers.What does controlled by nodes mean? Many people run nodes but only a few mining pools mine almost all the Bitcoin.This is also known as the 51% attack. But you just need one more node than 50% (e.g., 50% + 1) so it is more accurately a majority attack.The network itself requires minimal structure.Because?Messages are broadcast on a best effort basis, and nodes can leave and rejoin the network at will, accepting the longest proof-of-work chain as proof of what happened while they were gone.As Alex Seewald notes in the comments below, Satoshi is probably referring to best effort delivery. Best-effort delivery - WikipediaWho is doing the broadcasting?Like everything else in Bitcoin, you as a runner of full nodes are free to come and go as you please. That’s why many Bitcoin maximalists argue Bitcoin Core is not centralized.However, others disagree.Quantifying Decentralization – news.earn.com1. IntroductionCommerce on the Internet has come to rely almost exclusively on financial institutions serving as trusted third parties to process electronic payments.I think Satoshi is anti-bank, anti-PayPal and anti-Western Union. This is one reason why.While the system works well enough for most transactions, it still suffers from the inherent weaknesses of the trust based model.A key facet of Bitcoin is that it is trustless. You don’t have to trust JP Morgan.Completely non-reversible transactions are not really possible, since financial institutions cannot avoid mediating disputes.Unlike Bitcoin.The cost of mediation increases transaction costs, limiting the minimum practical transaction size and cutting off the possibility for small casual transactions, and there is a broader cost in the loss of ability to make non-reversible payments for non- reversible services.Debit cards payments are hard to reverse. Cash payments are even harder to reverse. Especially when either is combined with an “All Sales Final” condition.With the possibility of reversal, the need for trust spreads.Yes and many Americans prefer trusting American Express’ customer service over some random merchant on the internet that might rip you off.Merchants must be wary of their customers, hassling them for more information than they would otherwise need.BItcoin is just reallocating the risk from merchants back to consumers. It’s kind of anti-consumer tbh.A certain percentage of fraud is accepted as unavoidable.Yes, just like how so many of my friends have lost some crypto stolen or lost. Seems unavoidable!These costs and payment uncertainties can be avoided in person by using physical currency, but no mechanism exists to make payments over a communications channel without a trusted party.He should have said much earlier, “Unlike physical currency…”What is needed is an electronic payment system based on cryptographic proof instead of trust, allowing any two willing parties to transact directly with each other without the need for a trusted third party.Proof of work.Transactions that are computationally impractical to reverse would protect sellers from fraud, and routine escrow mechanisms could easily be implemented to protect buyers.Decentralized escrow? Are buyers to trust a third party centralized escrow service over American Express? As a buyer, I’m not doing that.In this paper, we propose a solution to the double-spending problem using a peer-to-peer distributed timestamp server to generate computational proof of the chronological order of transactions.Making it easier to follow the money i mean Bitcoin.The system is secure as long as honest nodes collectively control more CPU power than any cooperating group of attacker nodes.Bitcoin relies (trust?) the majority of full node runners to be honest. Here’s hoping mob rule, centralized mining or mass hysteria never takes over.2. TransactionsWe define an electronic coin as a chain of digital signatures.Very unexpected IMO. How is this anything like a normal coin? It is a ledger ledger of all the transactions relating to one asset, which isn’t even totally fungible with others. It seems we can literally give you the coin from Satoshi’s genesis block or another coin that we all know was mined today by F2Pool or whatever.Each owner transfers the coin to the next by digitally signing a hash of the previous transaction and the public key of the next owner and adding these to the end of the coin.Moving the digital signatures off the main chain is a bit scary to some folks - that’s why some dislike SegWit - which does that.A payee can verify the signatures to verify the chain of ownership.Who the heck wants to do an electronic title search every time they spend $100 of Bitcoin? This makes sense for big purchases like real estate and collectibles but not for small or even medium sized purchases.I’m not sure how pragmatic Satoshi was. He built great tech. He was not as great at guessing use cases and what unmet, urgent need Bitocin actually meets.Transaction[Would love it if someone can please help me and copy paste in the diagrams.]Owner 0's SignatureOwner 1's Private KeyTransactionOwner 1's SignatureOwner 2's Private KeyTransactionOwner 2's SignatureOwner 1's Public KeyOwner 2's Public KeyOwner 3's Public KeyHashHashHashThe problem of course is the payee can't verify that one of the owners did not double-spend the coin.Satoshi focuses a lot on double spending.A common solution is to introduce a trusted central authority, or mint, that checks every transaction for double spending.Mints and the entity that checks for double spending can be two different entities, no? In the analog world, the US government prints money. Maybe a private third party company like a PayPal checks for double spending among its users and customers.After each transaction, the coin must be returned to the mint to issue a new coin, and only coins issued directly from the mint are trusted not to be double-spent.This is bad if you believe, like Ray Dalio, government should increase the money supply (issue new coins) when no one’s spending, everyone’s HODLing and the token economy is shrinking. And you should decrease money suply (burn coins) if there is high or hyperinflation.The problem with this solution is that the fate of the entire money system depends on the company running the mint, with every transaction having to go through them, just like a bank.Broadly speaking, we have not really gotten away from that in Bitcoin. We just replaced banks with centralized mining chip makers, mining pools, developers, maintainers, client implementations, exchanges, wallets, owners, etc.We need a way for the payee to know that the previous owners did not sign any earlier transactions.This seems like a total pain. No wonder Hashcash didn’t work.For our purposes, the earliest transaction is the one that counts, so we don't care about later attempts to double-spend.What are the implications of this, if any?The only way to confirm the absence of a transaction is to be aware of all transactions.Awful.In the mint based model, the mint was aware of all transactions and decided which arrived first.To accomplish this without a trusted party, transactions must be publicly announced [1], and we need a system for participants to agree on a single history of the order in which they were received.The payee needs proof that at the time of each transaction, the majority of nodes agreed it was the first received.3. Timestamp ServerThe solution we propose begins with a timestamp server.A timestamp server works by taking a hash of a block of items to be timestamped and widely publishing the hash, such as in a newspaper or Usenet post [2-5].Hmmm…The timestamp proves that the data must have existed at the time, obviously, in order to get into the hash.Each timestamp includes the previous timestamp in its hash, forming a chain, with each additional timestamp reinforcing the ones before it.Owner 3's Private KeyHashHashBlock2BlockItemItem...ItemItem...VerifyVerifySignSign4. Proof-of-WorkTo implement a distributed timestamp server on a peer-to-peer basis, we will need to use a proof- of-work system similar to Adam Back's Hashcash [6], rather than newspaper or Usenet posts.Adam is the relatively (compared to unctuous CTO Greg Maxwell) cypherpunk and CEO of the controversial Blockstream, funded in part by Tencent in China.The proof-of-work involves scanning for a value that when hashed, such as with SHA-256, the hash begins with a number of zero bits.The average work required is exponential in the number of zero bits required and can be verified by executing a single hash.For our timestamp network, we implement the proof-of-work by incrementing a nonce in the block until a value is found that gives the block's hash the required zero bits.[Can someone help translate all this into plain English?]Once the CPU effort has been expended to make it satisfy the proof-of-work, the block cannot be changed without redoing the work.Immutable.As later blocks are chained after it, the work to change the block would include redoing all the blocks after it.The proof-of-work also solves the problem of determining representation in majority decision making.If the majority were based on one-IP-address-one-vote, it could be subverted by anyone able to allocate many IPs.Wonder what Satoshi thought of Proof of Stake at the time he wrote the white paper in 2008.Proof-of-work is essentially one-CPU-one-vote.Does hash rate matter more than full nodes?The majority decision is represented by the longest chain, which has the greatest proof-of-work effort invested in it.Some developers like Gavin Andressen IIRC tweeted that the real Bitcoin is the one with the longest chain, and that might be Bitcoin Cash.If a majority of CPU power is controlled by honest nodes, the honest chain will grow the fastest and outpace any competing chains.This is why small blockers want to ensure that blocksizes per second remain small - or become even smaller - so that many people - not just miners - can run full nodes and keep miners honest and reduce the risk of miners colluding and engaging a majority attack.To modify a past block, an attacker would have to redo the proof-of-work of the block and all blocks after it and then catch up with and surpass the work of the honest nodes.It would appear that Bitcoin is only immutable to the extent that most of the CPU power is controlled by honest nodes.We will show later that the probability of a slower attacker catching up diminishes exponentially as subsequent blocks are added.Arguably Bitcoin becomes harder to attack as blocks grow.To compensate for increasing hardware speed and varying interest in running nodes over time, the proof-of-work difficulty is determined by a moving average targeting an average number of blocks per hour. If they're generated too fast, the difficulty increases.5. NetworkThe steps to run the network are as follows:1) New transactions are broadcast to all nodes.2) Each node collects new transactions into a block.3) Each node works on finding a difficult proof-of-work for its block.4) When a node finds a proof-of-work, it broadcasts the block to all nodes.5) Nodes accept the block only if all transactions in it are valid and not already spent.6) Nodes express their acceptance of the block by working on creating the next block in the chain, using the hash of the accepted block as the previous hash.Nodes always consider the longest chain to be the correct one and will keep working on extending it. If two nodes broadcast different versions of the next block simultaneously, some nodes may receive one or the other first. In that case, they work on the first one they received, but save the other branch in case it becomes longer. The tie will be broken when the next proof- of-work is found and one branch becomes longer; the nodes that were working on the other branch will then switch to the longer one.3BlockBlockPrev HashNoncePrev HashNonceTxTx...TxTx...New transaction broadcasts do not necessarily need to signNow all nodes. As long as they signNow many nodes, they will get into a block before long. Block broadcasts are also tolerant of dropped messages. If a node does not receive a block, it will request it when it receives the next block and realizes it missed one.6. IncentiveBy convention, the first transaction in a block is a special transaction that starts a new coin owned by the creator of the block. This adds an incentive for nodes to support the network, and provides a way to initially distribute coins into circulation, since there is no central authority to issue them. The steady addition of a constant of amount of new coins is analogous to gold miners expending resources to add gold to circulation. In our case, it is CPU time and electricity that is expended.The incentive can also be funded with transaction fees. If the output value of a transaction is less than its input value, the difference is a transaction fee that is added to the incentive value of the block containing the transaction. Once a predetermined number of coins have entered circulation, the incentive can transition entirely to transaction fees and be completely inflation free.The incentive may help encourage nodes to stay honest. If a greedy attacker is able to assemble more CPU power than all the honest nodes, he would have to choose between using it to defraud people by stealing back his payments, or using it to generate new coins. He ought to find it more profitable to play by the rules, such rules that favour him with more new coins than everyone else combined, than to undermine the system and the validity of his own wealth.7. Reclaiming Disk SpaceOnce the latest transaction in a coin is buried under enough blocks, the spent transactions before it can be discarded to save disk space. To facilitate this without breaking the block's hash, transactions are hashed in a Merkle Tree [7][2][5], with only the root included in the block's hash. Old blocks can then be compacted by stubbing off branches of the tree. The interior hashes do not need to be stored.BlockBlock Header (Block Hash)Prev HashNonceRoot HashHash01Hash23Hash0Hash1Hash2Hash3Tx0Tx1Tx2Tx3BlockBlock Header (Block Hash)Prev HashNonceRoot HashHash01Hash23Hash2Hash3Tx3Transactions Hashed in a Merkle Tree After Pruning Tx0-2 from the BlockA block header with no transactions would be about 80 bytes. If we suppose blocks are generated every 10 minutes, 80 bytes * 6 * 24 * 365 = 4.2MB per year. With computer systems typically selling with 2GB of RAM as of 2008, and Moore's Law predicting current growth of 1.2GB per year, storage should not be a problem even if the block headers must be kept in memory.48. Simplified Payment VerificationIt is possible to verify payments without running a full network node. A user only needs to keep a copy of the block headers of the longest proof-of-work chain, which he can get by querying network nodes until he's convinced he has the longest chain, and obtain the Merkle branch linking the transaction to the block it's timestamped in. He can't check the transaction for himself, but by linking it to a place in the chain, he can see that a network node has accepted it, and blocks added after it further confirm the network has accepted it.Longest Proof-of-Work ChainBlock HeaderBlock HeaderBlock HeaderPrev HashNoncePrev HashNoncePrev HashNonceMerkle RootMerkle RootMerkle RootHash01 Hash23Merkle Branch for Tx3Hash2 Hash3Tx3As such, the verification is reliable as long as honest nodes control the network, but is more vulnerable if the network is overpowered by an attacker. While network nodes can verify transactions for themselves, the simplified method can be fooled by an attacker's fabricated transactions for as long as the attacker can continue to overpower the network. One strategy to protect against this would be to accept alerts from network nodes when they detect an invalid block, prompting the user's software to download the full block and alerted transactions to confirm the inconsistency. Businesses that receive frequent payments will probably still want to run their own nodes for more independent security and quicker verification.9. Combining and Splitting ValueAlthough it would be possible to handle coins individually, it would be unwieldy to make a separate transaction for every cent in a transfer. To allow value to be split and combined, transactions contain multiple inputs and outputs. Normally there will be either a single input from a larger previous transaction or multiple inputs combining smaller amounts, and at most two outputs: one for the payment, and one returning the change, if any, back to the sender.It should be noted that fan-out, where a transaction depends on several transactions, and those transactions depend on many more, is not a problem here. There is never the need to extract a complete standalone copy of a transaction's history.5TransactionInOutIn......10. PrivacyThe traditional banking model achieves a level of privacy by limiting access to information to the parties involved and the trusted third party. The necessity to announce all transactions publicly precludes this method, but privacy can still be maintained by breaking the flow of information in another place: by keeping public keys anonymous. The public can see that someone is sending an amount to someone else, but without information linking the transaction to anyone. This is similar to the level of information released by stock exchanges, where the time and size of individual trades, the "tape", is made public, but without telling who the parties were.Traditional Privacy ModelTransactionsNew Privacy ModelIdentities TransactionsAs an additional firewall, a new key pair should be used for each transaction to keep them from being linked to a common owner. Some linking is still unavoidable with multi-input transactions, which necessarily reveal that their inputs were owned by the same owner. The risk is that if the owner of a key is revealed, linking could reveal other transactions that belonged to the same owner.11. CalculationsWe consider the scenario of an attacker trying to generate an alternate chain faster than the honest chain. Even if this is accomplished, it does not throw the system open to arbitrary changes, such as creating value out of thin air or taking money that never belonged to the attacker. Nodes are not going to accept an invalid transaction as payment, and honest nodes will never accept a block containing them. An attacker can only try to change one of his own transactions to take back money he recently spent.The race between the honest chain and an attacker chain can be characterized as a Binomial Random Walk. The success event is the honest chain being extended by one block, increasing its lead by +1, and the failure event is the attacker's chain being extended by one block, reducing the gap by -1.The probability of an attacker catching up from a given deficit is analogous to a Gambler's Ruin problem. Suppose a gambler with unlimited credit starts at a deficit and plays potentially an infinite number of trials to try to signNow breakeven. We can calculate the probability he ever signNowes breakeven, or that an attacker ever catches up with the honest chain, as follows [8]:p = probability an honest node finds the next block q = probability the attacker finds the next block qz = probability the attacker will ever catch up from z blocks behindIdentitiesTrusted Third PartyPublicq ={ 1 if p≤q} z q/pz if pq6CounterpartyPublicGiven our assumption that p > q, the probability drops exponentially as the number of blocks the attacker has to catch up with increases. With the odds against him, if he doesn't make a lucky lunge forward early on, his chances become vanishingly small as he falls further behind.We now consider how long the recipient of a new transaction needs to wait before being sufficiently certain the sender can't change the transaction. We assume the sender is an attacker who wants to make the recipient believe he paid him for a while, then switch it to pay back to himself after some time has passed. The receiver will be alerted when that happens, but the sender hopes it will be too late.The receiver generates a new key pair and gives the public key to the sender shortly before signing. This prevents the sender from preparing a chain of blocks ahead of time by working on it continuously until he is lucky enough to get far enough ahead, then executing the transaction at that moment. Once the transaction is sent, the dishonest sender starts working in secret on a parallel chain containing an alternate version of his transaction.The recipient waits until the transaction has been added to a block and z blocks have been linked after it. He doesn't know the exact amount of progress the attacker has made, but assuming the honest blocks took the average expected time per block, the attacker's potential progress will be a Poisson distribution with expected value:=z q pTo get the probability the attacker could still catch up now, we multiply the Poisson density for each amount of progress he could have made by the probability he could catch up from that point:∞ ke−{q/pz−k ifk≤z} ∑k=0 k!⋅ 1 ifkzRearranging to avoid summing the infinite tail of the distribution...z ke− z−k 1−∑k=0 k! 1−q/p Converting to C code... #include
double AttackerSuccessProbability(double q, int z) { double p = 1.0 - q; double lambda = z * (q / p); double sum = 1.0; int i, k; for (k = 0; k <= z; k++) { double poisson = exp(-lambda); for (i = 1; i <= k; i++) poisson *= lambda / i; sum -= poisson * (1 - pow(q / p, z - k)); }return sum; }7Running some results, we can see the probability drop off exponentially with z. q=0.1 z=0 P=1.0000000 z=1 P=0.2045873 z=2 P=0.0509779 z=3 P=0.0131722 z=4 P=0.0034552 z=5 P=0.0009137 z=6 P=0.0002428 z=7 P=0.0000647 z=8 P=0.0000173 z=9 P=0.0000046 z=10 P=0.0000012 q=0.3 z=0 P=1.0000000 z=5 P=0.1773523 z=10 P=0.0416605 z=15 P=0.0101008 z=20 P=0.0024804 z=25 P=0.0006132 z=30 P=0.0001522 z=35 P=0.0000379 z=40 P=0.0000095 z=45 P=0.0000024 z=50 P=0.0000006 Solving for P less than 0.1%... P < 0.001 q=0.10 z=5 q=0.15 z=8 q=0.20 z=11 q=0.25 z=15 q=0.30 z=24 q=0.35 z=41 q=0.40 z=89 q=0.45 z=340 12. ConclusionWe have proposed a system for electronic transactions without relying on trust. We started with the usual framework of coins made from digital signatures, which provides strong control of ownership, but is incomplete without a way to prevent double-spending. To solve this, we proposed a peer-to-peer network using proof-of-work to record a public history of transactions that quickly becomes computationally impractical for an attacker to change if honest nodes control a majority of CPU power.Do coins have a majority of CPU power?The network is robust in its unstructured simplicity. Nodes work all at once with little coordination. They do not need to be identified, since messages are not routed to any particular place and only need to be delivered on a best effort basis. Nodes can leave and rejoin the network at will, accepting the proof-of-work chain as proof of what happened while they were gone. They vote with their CPU power, expressing their acceptance of valid blocks by working on extending them and rejecting invalid blocks by refusing to work on them.Any needed rules and incentives can be enforced with this consensus mechanism.The controversial UASF (User Activated Soft Fork) push for SegWit was arguably an example of consensus and honest folk running full nodes forcing the Bitcoin community (miners) to make SegWit an option for users, merchants, exchanges, etc. and pave the way for SegWit adoption.8References[1] W. Dai, "b-money," http://www.weidai.com/bmoney.txt, 1998.[2] H. Massias, X.S. Avila, and J.-J. Quisquater, "Design of a secure timestamping service with minimal trust requirements," In 20th Symposium on Information Theory in the Benelux, May 1999.[3] S. Haber, W.S. Stornetta, "How to time-stamp a digital document," In Journal of Cryptology, vol 3, no 2, pages 99-111, 1991.[4] D. Bayer, S. Haber, W.S. Stornetta, "Improving the efficiency and reliability of digital time-stamping," In Sequences II: Methods in Communication, Security and Computer Science, pages 329-334, 1993.[5] S. Haber, W.S. Stornetta, "Secure names for bit-strings," In Proceedings of the 4th ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security, pages 28-35, April 1997.[6] A. Back, "Hashcash - a denial of service counter-measure," http://www.hashcash.org/papers/h..., 2002.[7] R.C. Merkle, "Protocols for public key cryptosystems," In Proc. 1980 Symposium on Security and Privacy, IEEE Computer Society, pages 122-133, April 1980.[8] W. Feller, "An introduction to probability theory and its applications," 1957.9 -
What are some must have Android apps?
Edit: I wrote this answer for “must have Android apps” but these are same apps which have changed the way I used to live my life. Each and every App has helped me in one or the other way. I hope you will also find them helpful and a bit life changing. So here is the list: 10. Psiphon For those who use WiFi with proxy settings. So Psiphon bypasses and tunnel the websites or app through a different IP Address. 9. Mirror It's a simple app to record your mobile screen. Based on the concept of CamStudio in PC where you can record your screen, Mirror offers recording of your Mobile screen. 8. NTES- National Train Enquiry System If you are from India and you want to know the running status, cancelled train (partial or fully), Live Station and other features, this App is a must have. 7. VOLT Simple but effective for those who want to learn new vocabulary. That's too obvious, then why not others? Coz here you get the “memory key” which helps you relate the words and easier to remember them. 6. Parchi It a note making app. But here’s a catch. You can view, review, edit and add right from your lockscreen without need to open the app. Isn't that amazing! I personally find this app very useful. 5. edX If you are student or a learner who wants learn something new everyday, and cannot afford to go in the prestigious institutions like MIT, Harvard University, Cambridge, IITM, etc ten it is a must have app. Enroll yourself in any course and Bazinga!! You are ready to learn from the most amazing professors. Similar to edX, we have Coursera. 4. Walnut Manage your expenses on your finger tips. Its easier then that. It shows you your monthly expenditure, ATM locations, bill remainders and many more features. Its a must have app. 3. CamScanner Everyone doesn’t own a scanner but most of us have camera. So click the pic, upload to CamScanner and voila you are done. You have the scanned copy of your documents, notes, Marksheet and upload them on your DigiLocker. 2. inshorts Till now you all must be knowing this app. The tagline is also simple “News in 60 words” and trust me it is worth having. In this “I don't have time” world, you need news to be fast and accurate so here it is. 1. DigiLocker If you have this app then you don’t need to carry your personal documents like driving license, Adhar card, voter ID card, or even your Marksheets. Keep them safe in actual locker and leave the rest to your DigiLocker. And the best part is that it is acceptable as the original ones at every governmental or non governmental institution because it is developed under Digital India initiative. That's it for the day. Thank you and Enjoy !!! Update 1: Today I came across two new apps which I found useful. Hope it would help you all. 1.Forest : Stay focused Features • A self-motivated and interesting way to help you beat phone addiction • Stay focused and get more things done • Share your forest and compete with friends • Track your history in a simple and pleasant way • Earn reward and unlock more tree species • Customize your whitelist : Leaving Forest and using apps in whitelist won’t kill your tree. 2. Swachh Bharat Toilet Locator Swachh Bharat Toilet Locator is specifically useful for Indians who're committed for Swachh Bharat. Update 2: So I am back with yet another interesting app for you all. And trust me it is worth hanving. You are bored just go through it and kaboooom !!! You are into a black hole. Enjoy the ride. 3. Curiosity It is the latest app I installed but got addicted to it. It’s exactly works like its name, generates a curiosity which inturn increases your knowledge. It covers a large field of scope from Humanity to science to faith and many more. This app deserves more snapshots but why to increase the length of my answer. Comment below if you think the list should be updated? Thank you.
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