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FAQs
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How can I determine if I am being snooped on my PC? How can I inspect the network packets leaving my laptop for snooping activit
I love John's answer, it's blunt and to the point, and it's the right answer. Take action on a layer that people using electrons can't; block the view of the camera lens that you are concerned about. I'd also suggest turning off your microphone, and unloading the driver that handles that peripheral in your operating system, if you don't use it. Nowadays, most people do though, so think wisely about what part of your computer was necessary for you to purchase it. Now to my answer:The answer depends on your proficiency with Information Technology, specifically your understanding of Operating System, Application, and Network concepts and commercial and Open Source products. The short answer is, "it depends."The long answer is that if you have a record of activity that existed prior to your suspicions (we call that a baseline), you can compare what existed before to what exists now in access, security, and application logs. You can compare baseline network traffic patterns with current patterns.Another method you can use is to look at the files that have been changed, accessed, or created since you became suspicious. There are a lot of potential events related to this activity, and you should understand which events are related to normal activity and which events are not.You should determine what level of security controls you currently have in your IT environment, including detective controls such as IDS, corrective controls such as backups of your data and applications (or entire computer), and preventative controls such as Anti-virus and password complexity and variance among the services you have signed up for (NEVER REUSE PASSWORDS).Now, if you want to get into the weeds and start staring at every single packet of data that transits your home (or corporate) network environment, you'd better have some good tools. There are some great tools that are freely available, including:SnortWiresharkSecurity OnionSuricata…and the list goes on an on. My advice is only use a tool that you know how to use, and either pay for someone else to use advanced tools they understand, or learn how to use them yourself. Don't freak out over results from a tool you have never used before, investigate how it occurred, and determine it's significance.Hope this helps!-Jason
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How do I register a startup in India? How much money and time does it take? If am currently only 17, what issues will I face dur
Algorithm for starting a Private Limited Company: Engineer's View Personally I believe, If someone is starting a company with long term perspective or to bring some change through their unique Product/Services, one must go for Private limited firm. Prime reason for this is easy to raise funds from Angels/VC in case you go for investment. Step 1. Registration of Company 1. Name Selection: Check whether your desired company name is available or not at MCA website [ http://www.mca.gov.in/ ]. Name must be unique & must resemble with business you intend to do (highlighted one). EX: Arihant Labs Retail Services Pvt. Ltd 2. Registration of Name at ROC: Name approval usually takes maximum of 14 days. This is done online through MCA website. Moreover, you need to apply with at least 4 names for approval with a writeup about significance of names with main business of the company. 3. 1. Documents Required: 2. 1. Options for names for the proposed Company (on the basis of preference) 2. Amount of Share Capital; proposed shareholding ratio 3. A paragraph on the proposed major line of business of the company (main objects) 4. City of Registered Office. 5. Copy of ownership deed/sale deed(if property is owned) 6. Copy of rent agreement with NOC (if property is rented) 7. Copy of latest electricity bill/telephone bill/mobile bill for both directors 8. Copy of latest electric bill/telephone bill for the registered office proof. 4. Obtaining DIN & DSC: 5. 1. Documents Required 2. 1. PAN Card copies for directors and shareholders. 2. Voter ID/Passport/Driving License for directors and shareholders. 3. Occupation of the Directors for directors and shareholders. 4. E-Mail IDs of all directors and shareholders. 5. Phone Numbers for all directors and shareholders. 6. Photos for directors and shareholders 6. Company Incorporation: After above mentioned formalities have been completed, we need to file following forms/docs in Rs 100 stamp paper: 7. 1. Affidavits for non- acceptance 2. INC 9, INC 10 3. DIR 2 4. NOC : This is required to be filed by the owner of the property on which your company will be situated. 5. Subscriber Sheets of MOA & AOA 6. Documents required for filling MOA & AOA 7. 1. Must be filled on OWN handwriting 2. Passport size photos 3. Sheets needs to be witnessed by CA/CS/Advocate Step 2. Obtaining PAN/TAN: After company gets incorporated, you may apply for PAN/TAN. Step 3. Trade Licence in case you are selling PRODUCTS: This is required in some places for carrying out sales. You can obtain this from local Municipality. Step 4. VAT/CST registration for selling Products: For selling intra-state, you need VAT registration & for selling inter-state, you need to register for CST. 1. Documents Required: 2. 1. Trade Licence 2. Company Incorporation Certificate 3. PAN card of company as well as of all the directors 4. Proof of residence of Directors 5. Proof of occupancy of place of business (Rent agreement/ ownership deed, Rent Bills etc) 6. MOA & AOA of company 7. Current Account in the name of company in any national bank Step 5. Service tax registration for Service Industry: In India, you need to pay service tax of 14.5% on every services you have charged customer for. 1. Documents Required: 2. 1. Company Incorporation Certificate 2. PAN card of company as well as of all the directors 3. Proof of residence of Directors 4. Proof of occupancy of place of business (Rent agreement/ ownership deed, Rent Bills etc) 5. MOA & AOA of company 6. Current Account in the name of company in any national bank That's All folks! Your STARTUP is up to Conquer the World. UPVOTE & SHARE your views/issues We at labkafe [ http://labkafe.com/ ], prefer taxmantra [ http://taxmantra.com/ ] for our legal requirements.
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Why was the F-117 retired so quickly?
.“If it don’t look right, then it don’t fly right.” Ancient aviation saying. I thank Donnie Morrow for sharing it with us.Okay, military pilots and people, get ready for a good laugh: the reason the F-117 was retired early was simple:It didn’t look right.Oh, I can hear the gales of laughter right through my screen. Look, you really don’t have to flame me. Just two words will do: you wrong.But look at this:And this:Yuck! That is not a plane a self-respecting USAF fighter pilot could love. One Commenter, Erin Samai, saw this “fighter” at the Farnborough UK Airshow and likened it to a “flying tent.”While we’re talking fighter, I notice that no other Answer gives the real reason this “boutique bomber” —Rajan Bhavnani’s great term—was strangely designated F-117.The reason was that crafty Air Force brass wanted to lure high caliber pilots. Those would be fighter jocks. A jock would see that F and think, ‘Oh boy, I’m gonna be flying some super secret high performance fighter!’ Certainly not a flying tent. Or, more technically, not flying a “stealth attack aircraft,” aka, invisible bomber.Fighter pilots live and love to dogfight, not driving bomb dumpers. Yawn. And there was no way in hell F-117 could dogfight: it carried no weapons for air-to-air combat. So imagine those hi-cal pilots’ dismay when they clapped eyes on the Nighthawk: “WTF is this? Guys, this thing ain’t no fighter! We been hornswoggled!”In Operation Desert Storm, Saudi’s named the F-117 "Shaba,” Arabic for "Ghost."Since other Answers provide such extraordinary technical details—I’ve learned a lot—I shall do what I always do in these circumstances: tell stories.In the late ’70s, I was in flight training at Burbank Airport (now Bob Hope Airport), north of L.A. I chose this field for its interesting array of flight operations: training, airline, corporate (flying “heavy iron,” pilot-speak for biz jets such as Gulfstream, Bombardier, et al) Many of these sleek mini-airliners were owned by movie stars from nearby Hollywood.There was another operation, an extremely secretive one: Lockheed’s famed Skunk Works. The U-2 and SR-71 Black Bird spy planes were designed here by aeronautical super star Clarence L. “Kelly” Johnson. (February 27, 1910 – December 21, 1990) His sinister black hangar stood just across the field from my training base, wreathed in mystery.Johnson (left) with Gary Powers and U-2. On 1 May 1960, Powers was shot down over the USSR, causing a major Cold War incident. The Soviets, in their frantic efforts to down his U-2, shot down one of their own MIG-19 fighters, killing the pilot.“Oh hey! Sure, come on up. I bet we won’t be able to do this in the future ….”At Burbank I befriended the tower controllers and would often climb up to the glassed-in cab—impossible these days, of course. One morning I came up and a controller said, Oh, you missed some fun last night, Cameron.Seems the Air Force had called up and ordered them to douse the lights on the field at precisely midnight. The controllers pointed out that legally they couldn’t do that. The Air Force played their ace: the “national security” card. The controllers didn’t fold. Nope. USAF had to settle for dimmed lights.At midnight, a gigantic C-5 ( for you non-pilots, this is the largest USAF cargo plane) landed and trundled over to the Skunk Works, sticking its monster snout into their black hangar. Tall shrouds were erected to block view of the C-5’s loading ramp. Grim USAF security in trademark blue berets and automatic weapons established a perimeter around the mammoth plane. It hastily gobbled up something skunky and flew off.Lockheed C-5 Galaxy. Its cargo deck is 1 foot longer than the Wright Brother’s first flight.Next day, the field was abuzz as controllers, pilots and ramp boys speculated on That Top Secret Thing snatched from the Skunk Works. Was Lockheed “reverse engineering” an alien craft? Gee, do you think the government really has…alien pilots on ice? Whatever. It was the usual UFO clap trap.Now, this amuses me about our Air Force. They love to go: “DON’T LOOK! THIS IS TOP SECRET!” So, of course, we all look. If that midnight C-5 had just landed at high noon, trundled in like any normal C-5 and, ho hum, gobbled up some plain ol’ package—no shrouds, no blue berets—and took off, well, no one would have batted an eye. No alien nonsense. But no fun for USAF, either.Much later, we’d learn that the skunky thing was Have Blue, prototype of a revolutionary aircraft designed to evade radar detection. Ironically, the father of stealth was Soviet mathematician Petr Ufimtsev. Fortunately for the United States—remember, this was in the Cold War—Lockheed engineer Denys Overholser took Ufimtsev’s work seriously; his own people, the Soviets, hadn’t.Have Blue incorporated decades of secret aeronautical design work. Now, in the belly of that C-5, she was headed for her first flight at a field so secret, it didn’t exist. There, an assemblage of Air Force brass and Lockheed engineers would watch, holding their breath. Then, as Have Blue climbed away, there would be cheers, high fives and hugs, and, sure, a tear or two from aeronautical engineers who had labored so long and secretly on this peculiar airplane.Have Blue. 60% scale F-117 prototype. (Scott Hanson informs me these weird names are produced by a random name generator to remove human bias)Top photo below: Until the advent of Google Earth, the Air Force denied Area 51 existed. “Don’t you look, ‘cause it ain’t there!”Bottom Photo: F-117s at Langley AFB , Virginia. 64 were built.Flash forward a couple of years. I open the Los Angeles Times and, wow, there’s this big article about some USAF plane crashing in the remote mountains above Bakersfield. Now, normally such an event might rate a few lines of copy on page 15. Not this one. What was the big deal?The big deal was that the Air Force had called up all the major news outlets for an important press conference. OK, about what?Well, the Air Force Press Officer told the assembled journalists, we’ve thrown a “National Security Zone” around a crash site up in the mountains. Huh? Say what? One reporter asked to what altitude this zone extended. “To infinity.” WHAT? “Don’t look! Don’t look!” Big article. Much more fun than just saying nothing—which would have been logical given the remote location of the crash.Years later, we’d learn that the unfortunate craft was our little Have Blue. From the first, she had stability issues. Pilots nicknamed her the Wobblin’ Goblin. Luckily the pilot bailed out okay.F-117s were temperamental and required exceptional maintenance.Let’s return to my point about pilots and the (sexual) aesthetics of their fighter jets. Oh go ahead, laugh! I say sex is an unspoken factor here—and sometimes spoken, as you’ll see in a sec.There’s an old adage in the world of business: sex sells. Never truer than in the fighter jet business.In 1993, the Pentagon established a massive $200 Billion winner-take-all Joint Strike Fighter competition. Two candidates, Boeing’s X-32 and Lockheed Martin’s X-35 went nose-to-nose.I looked at them. Now, I’m no fighter jet expert, but without knowing anything about them, I knew, knew the Lockheed would win. Hands down. End of discussion.Boeing X-32Lockheed Martin X-35Why so certain? Well, look at them. The Lockheed is sleek and sexy in its graphite paint scheme, its come-hither canopy and raked tails. It’s a fighter jock’s dream! The X-32 is anything but. It’s more like—forgive me, Boeing—a happily vomiting albino frog with wings. Am I too unkind?In the testosterone-drenched world of fighter pilots, flying a sexy airplane is like going on a hot date. Seen Top Gun? The Grumman Tomcat is as much the star as that other Tom. I’ll go out on a wing: Tomcat was the sexiest airplane ever to fly. Show me another airplane that could upstage a movie star.Beyond the beauty of its lines, swing-wing Tomcat could fly faster—1544 mph and further, 575 mi—than its successor, the uninspiring McDonnell Douglas Hornet, (1190 mph and 460 mi.) And Tomcat regularly blew off Air Force jocks in mock air battles.But Sec of Defense Cheney had an inexplicable hostility toward the plane: it was a Grumman “jobs program.” (Oh come on! What defense program isn’t?) It had “60’s technology”(ever heard of…upgrading?) He denied a last-minute Navy plea to keep a few beloved, yowling Tomcats around.Some say he was bribed by Boeing. Could be. He certainly went to extraordinary lengths to make sure Tomcat never flew again, ordering Grumman to destroy all its machine tooling, making it impossible to build future planes. (Can you imagine being the veteran Tomcat builder ordered to do that?)The only ones flying now (July 2019) are Iranian. Which it is why it’s illegal to own one. Parts. Tomcats can be found on static displays around the country. Note: for those of you interested in owning a fighter, you can have an F-4 Phantom for $3MM.By any measure, the F-14 Tomcat was a magnificent fighter. It’s “variable geometry” swing wings were unique. It certainly deserves a place in the pantheon of fighter greats: Spitfire, MIG-15, Bf-109, P-51 Mustang, Mitsubishi Zero, Sopwith Camel. You probably have other candidates.I am saddened that Mr. Cheney lacked the vision to appreciate Tomcat.Oh, well—’sigh’—we’ll always have Top Gun.Grumman F-14 Tomcat, retired 2006. The Navy misses it…bad.Back to the Joint Strike Fighter competition:Strangely, the drooling jocks didn’t name the Lockheed plane and pilots love to name their craft. Examples: the unlovely Fairchild Republic A-10 is lovingly called Warthog, or simply Hawg. The Boeing B-52—in service 67 years!—is the BUFF: Big Ugly Fat Fucker—oops! I meant “Fellah.”(A pilot wouldn’t be caught dead uttering a warplane’s official name: A-10 Thunderbolt II, B-52 Stratofortress)Warthog firing its Avenger Gatling gun. Google up its unique “BRRRRT!” sound.The jocks did name Boeing’s X-32 and it wasn’t a nice name like Hawg. The test pilots called her…Monica. I tell you, that name was her death knell.Why Monica? A jock would happily tell you with a wink and snicker: she’s got a big mouth, she’s ugly and…she sucks. Scratching your head? Remember Bill Clinton’s presidency? Yeah? Good. That Monica. Aha!Now, if you’re still scratching at my stupid hinting, please Google up “Monica Clinton.” There’s your answer. And dear reader, I’m not being coy; we’re talking airplane sexuality here, not human. We’re not going there.Cool Cat won, of course. (pilots had begun calling her Panther) And to be fair, her win wasn’t all on sexy looks. She could refuel in flight and hover like a helicopter. Monica could do neither.She’s now the most expensive Pentagon program in history: $1 Trillion. Think of all the cool stuff we could have had for that: high speed rail, health care for all, a chromebook XL for every kid in the country. Think!Sure, Monica would have been way cheaper—Boeing had emphasized cost control—but trust me, there would have been a pilot mutiny if Air Force brass had embraced the Vomiting Frog over Panther.Many thanks to Howard Torman for sharing his first-hand knowledge of the Joint Strike Fighter competition.The F-117 was shot down once. It occurred in the Kosovo War of 1998–99 when NATO flew it against Serbia. The historic shoot-down date was 27 March 1999.A Serbian commander of an Air Defense Missile Brigade, former bread baker Colonel Zoltan Dani, made a study of the F-117 ‘s almost invisible radar returns. On Serbian screens the plane looked like a fuzzy sparrow, useless for missile lock. But Dani detected a chink in the stealth “armor:” when the bomb bay doors snapped open, that fuzzy little bird’s radar signature lit bright for a few seconds.Now add NATO complacency. Since F-117 was supposedly invisible, the air staff got lazy and ran the same course to targets in Belgrade, the Serbian capital, on every mission. Fatal. Unfortunately, Dani was an especially clever air defense commander. He now had the Initial Point of the bomb run and a probable course into Belgrade.Serbian “Goa” Surface to Air Missile (SAM)So, when the next Nighthawk came a-bombin’, Dani and crew pounced, hitting it with a brace of well-placed Goas. Badly damaged, the F-117 tumbled out of control, crashing in a field on its back. The pilot, Lt. Col. Dale Zelko (below) bailed out unhurt and evaded capture to be pulled out by USAF Pararescue six hours later.The ultimate irony: Dale Zelko is of Yugoslav ancestry.**Thanks to Desiree Arceneaux for shoot-down details.The gleeful Serbs then invited the Russians and Chinese in for some serious reverse engineering of the dead F-117. That ended the 25 year American monopoly on stealth technology.Despite this costly embarrassment, Nighthawk continued in service for another 8 years. The Air Force had expected at least 13. But the Ghost had been outed and in the most humiliating way: by a tiny Balkan air force (Serbia combines air force and air defense) To add insult to injury, Ghost was downed by obsolete Soviet SAMs. The Air Force was stunned. There were red faces at the Pentagon.Then there was the F-117’s record in combat with its Paveway II laser bomb system. After it’s first several missions, the Air Force crowed that the plane had destroyed 80% of its assigned targets. However, on closer examination this was found to be wildly overstated. Like about 100% wildly.So, here we had this weird black plane which hit targets barely half the time, which had embarrassed the Air Force and which was a bitch to maintain.And what was that impatient roaring in the wings? Panther! The expensive love of the fighter jocks, clawing to take center stage.No pilot ever loved The Black Jet—or at least confessed to. It was a revolutionary freak and revolutionaries are rarely lovable—nor are freaks.Nighthawk had been born in great mystery at the Skunk Works and out at Area 51—mystery made greater by Air Force antics. But now, in late middle age, it’s mystique was gone—and soon it would be, too..Colonel Dani gloating over his kill.“Get me Dimitri on the phone. And that Chinese guy. I can never pronounce his name.”But why did they have to rub it in? Why? The day after the shoot-down, the Serbs, giddy with their spectacular triumph, erected this huge, hand-painted banner over the shattered Nighthawk carcass for all the gathered international press to see:“S O R R Y ! .W E .D I DN’T .K N O W .I T .WA S **I N V I S I B L E!**”JerksThe author gratefully acknowledges the many suggestions and corrections from military and civilian readers. You improved this Answer—a lot! Thank you.** Zelko and Dani would later become friends.
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As a computer science student, what can I learn right now in just 10 minutes that could be useful for the rest of my life?
Have you ever felt that something(like taking backup of files, deleting old files etc.) should automatically happen when you connect your pen-drive to your system?Let us take an example, Suppose your teacher wants you to copy your assignments into his pendrive in front of him. The pen drive contains your final examination paper. You want your ubuntu system to automatically copy all the data from that pen drive to your hard disk automatically in the background (without even opening a copy dialogue). Here is how to do it on ubuntu:1] First let us write a simple shell script which we want to execute whenever a pen drive is connected to our system. Let us write a simple script which copies all data from the connected device to your home directory.First open a new fileemacs $HOME/script.shand add following lines to that file.#!/bin/bash sudo mkdir -p /tmp/test sudo mkdir -p $HOME/device_data sudo mount /dev/sdb1 /tmp/test sudo cp -r /tmp/test/* $HOME/device_data/ sudo umount /tmp/test Save and close the file.This script essentially creates a new directory named "device_data" inside your home folder and copies all the data from the pen drive into device_data directory.(Note: You can write ANYHTING into this script, so use it wisely :P)Now let us make this script executable.sudo chmod +x $HOME/script.sh As this script needs sudo permissions, we need to make it sudo runnable. To do this add the name of the script into sudoers file.Open sudoers file.sudo visudo -f /etc/sudoers Now after the 25th line (%sudo…) add this line
ALL=(ALL) NOPASSWD: /home/ /script.sh So now this script will run with sudo rights but will not ask for password! :)2]Now we need to tell our system to follow OUR rules (i.e execute our script) whenever a pendrive is connected. For this we need to create our own "udev rules" file. This file should be created in '/etc/udev/rules.d' directory.cd /etc/udev/rules.d Open a new file (with sudo rights):sudo emacs 91-myrules.rules Make sure the file name starts with "91". This gives your rules priority over other rules.Now add these lines into that fileACTION=="add", ATTRS{idVendor}=="****", ATTRS{idProduct}=="****", RUN+="/paht/to/your/script.sh" Make sure you enter proper path into RUN variable.Done!!Now plug any pendrive into your system and test this!Note: 1] When you connect your external drive this script will be run and your system won’t be able to use it unless this script execution is complete! So have some patience! :p 2] This answer is written for educational purposes only! Do not misuse it.Thanks Mehak Sharma for promoting the answer! -
How does understanding the elements of music impact the analysis of a narrative poem?
Scaringly difficult subject to write about, and surely, just as ambivalent. I possess no expertise on poetry nor on music, only what a curious & interested mind gathers over these past few years. Hastily point out mistakes or any others short-comings & fallacies.I will be quick to mention Milton, perhaps a little of Eliot, and lastly, Ezra Pound. The effect & connection between music and poetry has definitively varied throughout history. Sung epos & folklore songs, Provençal & Troubadour poetry,... roughly speaking, and this is my observation, the first wedge between the two has been made when poetry became much more erudite, soaked in words-meaning, and forgot the musical rhythms little behind, not that I value one over another.-- Anyway, 19. & 20. century welcomed the revival of the two, and again established connections. French symbolism, Modernism & new musical techniques ( revolution of style both in literature & music, the avant-garde was united across all fields ). Of course, one of the issues is how much of modern poetry can be marked as "narrative" in the obvious sense. The elements of music is such a vague term indeed…To start off with a quotation from Poe`s The Poetic Principle:Contenting myself with the certainty that Music, in its various modes of metre, rhythm and rhyme, is of so vast a moment in Poetry as never to be wisely rejected - is so vitally important an adjunct, that he is simply silly who declines its assistance, I will not now pause to maintain its absolute essentiality. It is in Music perhaps that the soul most nearly attains the great end for which, when inspired by the Poetic Sentiment, it struggles - the creation of supernal Beauty. It may be, indeed, that here this sublime end is, now and then, attained in fact. We are often made to feel, with a shivering delight, that from an earthly harp are stricken notes which cannot have been unfamiliar to the angels. And thus there can be little doubt that in the union of Poetry with Music in its popular sense, we shall find the widest field for the Poetic development. The old Bards and Minnesingers had advantages which we do not possess - and Thomas Moore, singing his own songs, was, in the most legitimate manner, perfecting them as poems.&A poem, in my opinion, is opposed to a work of science by having, for its immediate object, pleasure, not truth; to romance, by having, for its object, an indefinite instead of a definite pleasure, being a poem only so far as this object is attained; romance presenting perceptible images with definite, poetry with definite sensations, to which end music is an essential, since the comprehension of sweet sound is our most indefinite conception. Music, when combined with a pleasurable idea, is poetry; music, without the idea, is simply music; the idea, without the music, is prose, from its very definitiveness.And to finish, a section from a letter to James R. Lowell:I am profoundly excited by music and by some poems - those of Tennyson especially - whom with Keats, Shelley, Coleridge (occasionally) and a few others of like thought and expression, I regard as the sole poets. Music is the perfection of the soul or idea of Poetry. The vagueness of exultation aroused by a sweet air which should be strictly indefinite and never too strongly suggestive is precisely what we should aim at in poetry. Affectation which is thus no blemishMustek and Poetry have ever been acknowledg'd Sisters. As Poetry is the harmony of Words, so Mustek is that of Notes... Sure they are most excellent when they are join 'd. Blest pair of Sirens, pledges of Heav'ns joy, Sphere-born harmonious Sisters, Voice, and Vers, Wed your divine sounds, and mixt power employ Dead things with inbreath'd sense able to pierceMilton could have very well be a musician, -his father was-, and his music appeared in print from time to time, one notable contribution was Fair Orian in collection of madrigals in Honour of queen Elizabeth, The Triumphs of Oriana.He was a close friend with a composer Henry Lawes, and the two collaborated on The Masque of Comus, 1634.There is also a distinction to be made between Greek & Roman musica practica, which was performed & sung, and the Pythagorean musica speculativa, theoretical & mathematical understanding, — changed to Christianised harmonia mundi during the Renaissance revival ). Harmonica mundi can definitely be encountered in Milton`s early poetry, At solemn music, Ad Patrem, & passages from 'Arcades', Comus, and 'On the Morning of Christ's Nativity'.From At solemn music:“ … disproportioned sinJarred against nature's chime, and with harsh dinBroke the fair music that all creatures madeTo their great Lord.”See how disproportioned resonates with Pythagorean proportions, and it became disproportioned with the Original Sin and the fall from Eden. The reconciliation between the Classical/Pagan & Christian aesthetics and tradition was one of the foremost issues of early Milton. A passage from On the Morning of Christ's Nativity';The lonely mountains o’er, And the resounding shore, A voice of weeping heard and loud lament; Edgèd with poplar pale, From haunted spring, and dale The parting Genius is with sighing sent; With flower-inwoven tresses torn The Nymphs in twilight shade of tangled thickets mourn.From Paradise Lost:Celestial voices to the midnight air [...]With heavenly touch of instrumental soundsIn full harmonic number joined, their songsDivide the night, and lift our thoughts to heaven.& in Hell:Their song was partial, but the harmony(What could it less when spirits immortal sing?)Suspended hell, and took with ravishment The thronging audience.Partial music of fallen Angels & Broken music of man. And Book V:Mystical dance, which yonder starry sphereOf planets and of fixed in all her wheelsResembles nearest, mazes intricate,Eccentric, intervolved, yet regularThen most, when most irregular they seem;And in their motions harmony divineSo smooths her charming tones, that God's own earListens delighted.A quick stop with T.S. Eliot and modernism before Pound.Modernism was a turbulent period, literature was chasing music, music was chasing language, and both were born out of impulse to restore expressivity & eloquence that the formality has lost. An important shift has happened, there is no absolute, right or left, right is not the opposite of left, ocean does not kill the fire.Poe & French symbolism played a pivotal role, and I am not confident nor do I know enough to speak about French climate and the effects of Poe in the second half of the 19. century here.Just as literature changed, so did music. Even the so called more traditional composers, like Ravel, are less formulaic and more abrupt, not to mention the likes of Stravinsky. What is very intriguing to me is how well does modern art produce tensions despite the loss of totality & coherence, and how idiosyncratic arbitration took over without losing the profound and human effect of tensity. In this sense, music was not longer a music in musical forms, but rather that of consciousness and its fragmentation.The seeming homelessness of arts in the period is a precondition of the changes that occurred, and this is what T. Hardy called the ache of modernism. There are no happy ends, formulaic tragedies ethically victorious, nor obvious redemption ( debatable, Last part of The Waste Land is an example ). The widening canyon of separation & inability of pristine connectivity is a precondition of the age, and in itself, its product - Postmodernism, a headless human still digging in a graveyard of modernity, seeking hopelessly for a regenerative bone & praying not to find it - he would have to leave. This is why modernism has no green heritage, only skeletons. In Joyce`s terms, Scrupulous meanness. Even the Hegelian aesthetics “in the suspension of equilibrium lies the tendency to return to a condition of equilibrium”, even musical form through dissonance to consonance, is depleted. If one here remembers the quotes from Poe and his posture of indefinitiveness, how it went from his to symbolism and from there to modernism, acclaiming the suggestive aspect.One of the drives of modernism was to thrust poetry back from the street, or jungle, to the sublime, the rightful place, to perform the duties it deserves. The restoration called for a path through prickly subjects, even ironic and laughable, like Prufrock`s underwhelming question, but it manages to pass exactly due to that vagueness, and we sense it as our own.Perhaps all this has been rather imprecise, let me speak about Eliot.So, while poetry attempts to convey something beyond what can be conveyed in prose rhythms, it remains, all the same, one person talking to another; and this is just as true if you sing it, for singing is another way of talking. The immediacy of poetry to conversation is not a matter on which we can lay down exact laws. Every revolution in poetry is apt to be, and sometimes to announce itself to be a return to common speech.... The music of poetry, then, must be a music latent in the common speech of its time.The Use of Poetry and The Use of Criticism: “Poetry begins, I dare say, with a savage beating a drum in a jungle, and it retains that essential of percussion and rhythm” - like music.Fairly, music of poetry may differ from music of music, an awkward saying that while musical elements are important for analysis, but the musical elements in poetry categorically & theoretically & applicably differ from those that we apply to music per se.'From Poe to Valery´, essay:Poetry, of different kinds, may be said to range from that in which the attention of the reader is directed primarily to the sound, to that in which it is directed primarily to the sense. With the former kind, the sense may be apprehended almost unconsciously; with the latter kind - at these two extremes - it is the sound, of the operation of which upon us we are unconscious. But, with either type, sound and sense must cooperate; in even the most purely incantatory poem, the dictionary meaning of the words cannot be disregarded with impunity.Precisely, from The music of Poetry;[m]y purpose here is to insist that a 'musical poem' is a poem which has a musical pattern of sound and a musical pattern of the secondary meanings of the words that compose it, and that these two patterns are indissoluble and one.Simply a level beside the denotation of words. In`The Music of Poetry´ another inspect of this climate is presented:The music of a word is, so to speak, at a point of intersection: it arises from its relation first to the words immediately preceding and following it, and indefinitely to the rest of its context; and from another relation, that of its immediate meaning in that context to all the other meanings which it has had in other contexts, to its greater or less wealth of association.Which can be directly linked to his writings On Dante:In English poetry words have a kind of opacity which is part of their beauty. I do not mean that the beauty of English poetry is what is called mere 'verbal beauty'. It is rather that words have associations, and the groups of words in association have associations, which is a kind of local self-consciousness, because they are the growth of a particular civilization.As many words, music ferries such a rich history of meanings, definitions, and relations that is difficult to analyse the impact. Music in one of the Archetypes, and they are hard to contain. Music is a structure separate of understanding, insofar as it escapes the restraints of conventional meanings. The Music of Poetry is, if one takes a leap of imagination, an objective correlative, if I dare expand the term. If I use a line from D. Davie; "It is language which happens through the speaker and not the speaker who expresses himself through language.”-— Can this also be said about music, when it comes to early Eliot?In an 'Aspects of Rhythm and Rhyme in Eliot's Early Poems', J. Chalker, in sum, `The Use “the steadiness and predictability of musical rhythm” is to produce psychological reassurance in the midst of emotional disturbance.´—Such irony, after reading Prufrock, if I thinks solemnly of rhythm, I would say it conveys anything but the reassurance and predictability, yes, the irony that is serves as a distraction from emotional disturbances, and in this fact lays reassurance.Quite enough of Eliot…Ezra Pound!''The idea that music and poetry can be separated,'' he wrote, ''is an idea current in ages of degradation and decadence when both arts are in the hands of lazy imbeciles.''Opera Le Testament De Villon:He started at least two unfinished operas, Cavalcanti and COLLIS O HELICONII.( Two short recordings of the latter can be found here )Rhythm & Music, “the hardest quality of a man's style to counterfeit”.In his three essays about Music in Transatlantic Review, he strongly focuses & advocates time and time-intervals, arguing:“A sound of any pitch, or any combination of such sounds, may be followed by a sound, or any combination of sounds, providing the time interval between them is properly gauged; and this is true for any series of sounds, chords, or arpeggios”Emphasization of space and rhythm was, by space - `space in between concise images - in juxtaposition´ - one of prime concerns of Imagisme. Reader`s interaction is needed to form a connection between them. ( A short answer about In A Station of the Metro ) Another short poem, Alba:As cool as the pale wet leaves of lily-of-the-valleyShe lay beside me in the dawn.Pound˙s poetry, rhythm & music was always more about reaction than explanation, which, I think, anyone who has read him can agree, and that might very well be the only thing on which we can agree. Therefore Poetry & Music are two in one to achieving this reaction.I will briefly present his own attempt to compose a work based on his own poem, Sestina Altaforte (1909 )Loquitur: En Bertrans de Born.Dante Alighieri put this man in hell for that he was a stirrer-up of strife.Eccovi!Judge ye!Have I dug him up again?The scene in at his castle, Altaforte. "Papiols" is his jongleur."The Leopard," the device of Richard (Cúur de Lion).IDamn it all! all this our South stinks peace.You whoreson dog, Papiols, come! Let's to music!I have no life save when the swords clash.But ah! when I see the standards gold, vair, purple, opposingAnd the broad fields beneath them turn crimson,Then howl I my heart nigh mad with rejoicing.IIIn hot summer have I great rejoicingWhen the tempests kill the earth's foul peace,And the lightnings from black heav'n flash crimson,And the fierce thunders roar me their musicAnd the winds shriek through the clouds mad, opposing,And through all the riven skies God's swords clash.IIIHell grant soon we hear again the swords clash!And the shrill neighs of destriers in battle rejoicing,Spiked breast to spiked breast opposing!Better one hour's stour than a year's peaceWith fat boards, bawds, wine and frail music!Bah! there's no wine like the blood's crimson!IVAnd I love to see the sun rise blood-crimson.And I watch his spears through the dark clashAnd it fills all my heart with rejoicingAnd pries wide my mouth with fast musicWhen I see him so scorn and defy peace,His lone might 'gainst all darkness opposing.VThe man who fears war and squats opposingMy words for stour, hath no blood of crimsonBut is fit only to rot in womanish peaceFar from where worth's won and the swords clashFor the death of such sluts I go rejoicing;Yea, I fill all the air with my music.VIPapiols, Papiols, to the music!There's no sound like to swords swords opposing,No cry like the battle's rejoicingWhen our elbows and swords drip the crimsonAnd our charges 'gainst "The Leopard's" rush clash.May God damn for ever all who cry "Peace!"VIIAnd let the music of the swords make them crimson!Hell grant soon we hear again the swords clash!Hell blot black for always the thought "Peace!"As a remainder, poem’s speaker is the Gascon nobleman and war-loving troubadour Bertran de Born, who lived in the second half of the twelfth century. There is no way Pound would have wrote the poem in 1914, even 1913, with its pro-war orientation, but in the end, it is a traditional subject of epic.If one isolates the ending words of each stanza:peace – music – clash – opposing – crimson – rejoicing [Stanza I]rejoicing – peace – crimson – music – opposing – clash [Stanza II]clash – rejoicing – opposing – peace – music – crimson [Stanza III]crimson – clash – rejoicing – music – peace – opposing [Stanza IV]opposing – crimson – peace – clash – rejoicing – music [Stanza V]music – opposing – rejoicing – crimson – clash – Peace [Stanza VI]crimson – clash – Peace [Envoi]Not to get into a detailed analysis of this one poem and its technical mastery of Anglo-Saxon metre & alliteration, more famous in his translation The Seafarer.“The phrases are short (two to six small, quick bars), often similar but generally asymmetric, and impetuous with anapest driven leaps, creating an almost flickering quality. The sestina form, however, is used for purely structural function. There is no attempt at word painting or at a sonic/cognitive equivalent. The music matches the original poem, one note or chord per syllable, through the third line of the second sestet. From this point musical irregularities gradually encroach upon the monosyllabic relationship with the text. His formal method was to assign one or two extremely brief music segments (each segment consisting of a different chord, or two or three chords with or without a unison note) as a “sonic signifier” to identify each line of Altaforte’s six end words. When the end word appeared in its new position in the following sestet its sonic signifier would appear as a recognizable determinant. . . .“Remembering category #4 concerning “Criticism via music” in Pound’s essay “Date Line,” we can reflect upon the interpretive insights given us when Pound interrelates music and verse.2 As can be seen above, the temptation to read “Damn it all!” as a colloquial emphatic anapest is dissuaded by Pound’s more pungent cretic ( – ˘– ), giving equal emphasis to “Damn-all.” At the end of the line a spondee (two quarter notes) gives accentuation to “stinks peace,” correcting a tendency to slight “stinks” as a moderately unstressed syllable if giving “South stinks peace” the quite natural reading of a cretic. Similarly, in line six of the same stanza, “heart nigh mad” might be rendered a cretic, yet Pound’s musical setting as three stressed syllables heightens the emotional pitch of the poem by raising the tension on “nigh.” . . .“Under the influence of Antheil’s constantly changing time signatures and note durations[applied to the opera Le Testament] the solo violin sestina utilizes a constant shifting of the number of microbeats per bar from 1/4 to 21/32, with a frequency of triple and quintuple meters presaging the metric simplification of his music over the next two years. Yet Pound’s notation is not secure enough to avoid frequent miscalculations of the note lengths versus the time signatures.“A chordal piece with almost no single notes, frequently using triple- and quadruple-stops with one to three open strings, it repeatedly necessitates the use of “broken chords” or arpeggiation. The result is often a scratchy, disjointed, leaping quality as the player prepares the fingers to approach each new multiple stop. Yet the “breaking” of the chord also favors a clarification of the harmony by lessening the biting dissonance to produce a more consonant sound, often focusing on open fifths or, in arpeggiation, the sweetened effect of an incomplete major seventh chord. Although aesthetically clarified by a few interpretive markings (bowings, accents, staccati, glissandi, sordino, string specification), technically the piece is filled with impracticalities: jagged, wide leaps; constant multiple stops; and some extremely difficult quadruple- stops, which at best render the work barely playable, if not unplayable. (These challenging famous last words often eventually offer an extremely good performance!)” . . . ( Sestina Altaforte” Ezra Pound sets his poem to music )Aforementioned unfinished COLLIS O HELICONII;HYMN TO APHRODITEAphrodite subtle of soul and deathless, Daughter of God, weaver of wiles, I pray thee Neither with care, dread Mistress, nor with anguish Slay thou my spirit. But in pity hasten, come now if ever! From afar, of old, when my voice implored thee, Thou hast deigned to listen leaving the golden House of thy father With thy chariot yoked, and with doves that drew thee Fair and fleet around the dark earth from heaven, Dipping vibrant wings down the azure distance Through the mid ether: Very swift they came; and thou gracious Vision Leaned with face that smiled in immortal beauty, Leaned to me and asked, “What misfortune threatened?” Why I had called thee? “What my frenzied heart craved in utter yearning, Whom its wild desire would persuade to passion? What disdainful charms madly worshipped, slight thee? Who wrongs thee, Sappho? “She that fain would fly, she shall quickly follow She that now rejects, yet with gifts shall woo thee, She that heeds thee not, soon shall love to madness, Love thee, the loth one.”( John Myers O’Hara translation 1910, which Pound recommended )Scenario/librettoPound described his third opera as half-finished (GK 368). A libretto, two arias, and three instrumental works are the sum of materials we have to inform the staging of the opera Collis O Heliconii. Pound’s libretto refers only to the Catullus poem (see my comments and transcription of Pound’s libretto, COLLIS xvi–xix; 102–111). The joining of the opera’s central aria in Latin—Catullus’ carmen 61—and a secondary aria in Greek—Sappho’s “Poikilothron”—continued the pairing of languages heard in the second opera Cavalcanti (Italian and Provençal). The composer’s principal motivation for relating the Latin and Greek poems in an opera was to anchor modern English lyrics in the Greek rhythms while demonstrating how a grasp of Latin will refine a poet’s style.The four key actions of Sappho’s Poem 1 are Sappho’s invocation to the goddess Aphrodite; the goddess’s descent from heaven; Aphrodite’s direct address to Sappho regarding her dominance over human will; and Sappho’s invitation to Aphrodite to take action side by side to reverse an unrequited love.The relationship of the Sappho invocation to the Catullan poem, which is widely accepted as an epithalamium, is not an obvious one. But even if we overlook recent scholarship that depicts carmen 61 as a lampoon of an epithalamium, we can find structural resemblances between the two poems. Sappho’s poem provides an authorial match to Catullus’ carmen 61: each poet inserts her- or himself into the poem; each writes in a way that distances the poet as author from the passions written about; and each poem includes a theme of same-sex preference. It was Henry Wharton who first introduced the English reader to Sappho’s love for a female and possibly Theodor Bergk who earlier had done the same for the German reader (Williamson 51–52).2For contrast and drama in his opera, Pound would develop the literary relationship between Sappho and Catullus. He had named them in his 1929 essay “How to Read” as among the essential canon of authors "who actually invented something" (LE 27). In 1934, Pound praised Catullus for his treatment of sapphics: “. . . the only man who has ever mastered the lady’s metre” (ABCR 47). He published the essay “Date Line” the same year, claiming that the musical setting of a poet’s words was a fourth form of criticism (LE 74). Had Pound’s attempts at setting the two poets’ words to music led him to these declarations?Pound’s preference was for us to hear the two poets’ words in the original language, their rhythms and styles brought directly to our ear through the music—the successful formula he had used to dramatize the Cavalcanti–Sordello literary relationship in his second opera. Pound’s pairing of Sappho’s 1 with Catullus 61 removes Sappho from the sphere of influence of Ovid, where most readers became acquainted with her through reading the Heroides. The opera was to place her Latin legacy clearly on the side of Catullus. For more on this, see COLLIS, chapter V, “Sappho.”SapphicsEzra Pound's holograph score of his setting of Sappho Poem 1 from his 3rd opera,Collis O Heliconii.Shown: Introduction to End of Stanza 1 with sapphic stanza and transcription of Pound's lyrics added in red.Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library (YCAL 53, Box 46/1015)Reprinted by permission, Second Evening Art. All rights reserved.Pound’s musical events in the Poikilothron convey a feeling for the meter through quantity and syllabic durations. Only the first stanza (see music score above) corresponds wholly to the sapphic stanza as defined by the Alexandrian grammarian Hephaestion (2nd century A.D.). Here is the sapphic meter as it has come down to us from Hephaestion’s manual of Greek meters, the Enchiridion:– ˘ – x – ˘˘ – ˘ – x– ˘ – x – ˘˘ – ˘ – x– ˘ – x – ˘˘ – ˘ – x– ˘˘ – –[The x represents an “anceps” in which the syllable can be short or long.]O’Hara, too, conformed only his first stanza to the Hephaestion sapphic. He maintained the feeling of sapphics through quantity (eleven syllables in the first three lines, five in the fourth), through a liberal use of the choriambic foot – ˘˘ – (though not always in the Hephaestion choriambic position), and through sounds in English that evoke the Greek sounds. Pound follows suit in the music (see the entry on Stanza 4 below).Musical InfluencesWhen Pound approached the setting of a Greek poem accompanied by lyre, he did not attempt to imitate ancient Greek music. Though he had acquired vol. 1 of the Lavignac Encyclopedia of Music which features Maurice Emmanuel’s entry on Greek music, he relied on this text more for its relevance to poetic meter than for compositional ideas.He lent Mary Barnard his own volume, recommending it as the preferred source for understanding how to write sapphics in American English using Emmanuel’s system of musical forms and strategies (Barnard, 56, 58).For his melodies, Pound looked beyond Greece, east to Indonesia. Pound turned his attention to the Javanese scale as had Claude Debussy, but distanced himself from the composer, lamenting that Debussy had turned to composing ‘mush.’3 Debussy had been influenced by performances of the Javanese gamelan at the Paris Exposition of 1889. Access to information about and recordings of world music were random and haphazard, the nascent field of ethnomusicology being represented by only a few key individuals until well into the 1950s.The specific source for Pound’s approach to the Sappho aria, however, is traceable to the Austrian Erich von Hornbostel, one of the earliest musicologists to make field recordings of the music of Indonesia. Hornbostel reported his findings in “Phonographierte Melodien aus Madagaskar und Indonesien” in 1909. Pound most probably learned of him from his friend, the American concert pianist Katherine Heyman, who mentioned Hornbostel in her 1921 bookThe Relation of Ultramodern to Archaic Music (58).4 On July 7, 1924, Pound programmed an arrangement of a Hornbostel Javanese transcription for solo violin, played by Olga Rudge in Paris.5Pound’s Musical Strategy: Modality and TonalityTo the ear accustomed to a diatonic scale, the intervals of Pound’s unusual scale join with the rhythms “to cut a shape in time” (Barnard, 55). Pound’s single accidental of C# in his scale for the Poikilothron aria resembles the transcriptions of Sumatran music compiled by von Hornbostel at the turn of the century.Pound employs six tones —A, C#, D, E, F, (G)—and avoids B altogether. The use of five tones only in stanzas one through four creates a sense of modal music, i.e., a type of scale that is sui generis, where each tone has equal weight, rather than tonal, which is a hierarchical system of music with a central pitch to which the other pitches relate. In modal music the notes do not function as harmony. Only in the fifth stanza does Pound introduce the G to create the sense of a musical key with the stable relationships of the fourth between D and G, and the already present fifth between D and A. The six-tone scale, with certain features acting like a diatonic scale which has seven tones, implies the key of D minor. B is simply avoided and the C# serves as a raised “seventh” step which wants to resolve to D.When the tritone sounds between G and C#, the composer moves from modal to tonal music. In Stanza six, he resumes modality.The contours of Pound’s melodies arise from the qualities of spoken word in the poem—supplication, solicitation, question, demand, and judgment—, the intervallic movement expanding and subsiding with the emotion. The composer brings forward the contours of Sappho’s words through timbre, dissonance, tritone, and accent. Guided by the belief that he can recover the form apart from the formulaic metrics passed down by tradition, he does not attempt to recover ancient Greek melody, but presents new composition as his fifth form of criticism (LE 74–75).Stanza 4: Inner form in Sappho’s Poikilothron:In stanza four, Sappho’s rhetorical devices lead to a highly structured colloquy between the poetess and goddess, even as the language remains colloquial. The composer strives to make this duality salient—structural formality/linguistic familiarity—not only to transmit Sappho to a modern audience but to promote his own interest in Sappho as a mortal poet conversant with the gods.At stanza four we find rhyming patterns in the syllables: otti deute / kotti deute. Here, Pound foregrounds Sappho’s word play by striking the repeating hard surfaces of her Greek consonants—t, d, p, k—against his neo-Sumatran scale, the strangeness of the scale serving to inflect each sound. Sappho’s voice rings out, resonant and striking in her Poundian afterlife, with none of the Ovidian invention and melodrama qualifying her poetic achievement.Stanza 4, lines 3–4, bars 45–49“You asked, what pray tell have I suffered and why pray tell do I call?”Following three breathy vowels on the same pitch, “e-re ot-”, the consonant load of the syllables, “ti”–“dau”–“te”–“pe”–“pon”–“tha,” meets each of the descending pitches with percussive impact. The final syllable pepontha (“have I suffered”) hits the bottom of the singer’s tessitura on A,an octave and a minor sixth below “e-re ot-.” The word kotti (“and what”) rebounds one octave higher on the A, then C# and A again,before a second leap downward to the low A. There follows a third and lesser rebound and descent. The word melodykalemmi (“do I call”), broken by a sixteenth rest, gives the illusion that all is settling down. Pound delivers the last syllable “-mi” on the less-than-resolute e to end the stanza (supported by an A in the violin).Stanza 5: the tritone in Pound’s aria Poikilothron:The Music Column of Make It New 2.1 discussed Pound’s use of the interval of the tritone to insert a critical marker indicating genius within the music. In the Sappho aria, we might expect that when Sappho refers to herself in the poem’s fifth stanza (“kotti moi”), Pound will employ the tritone, and he does not disappoint. He makes the tonality of the tritone salient by preceding it with modality in the preceding four stanzas and in the subsequent sixth stanza.What Pound said:“The more Greek a man knows the better his English cadence is likely to be, and the greater richness, variety, height, precision, colour of his criteria; the greater the variety of his ideas and memories of what verbal melody can be and should be; and the finer his perception of all verbal sounds whatsoever.”(Ezra Pound. “Dust upon Hellas.” Time and Tide XV.45 [November 10, 1934]: 1429–1430).“Greek seems to me a storehouse of wonderful rhythms, possibly impracticable rhythms. If you don’t read it and if you can’t read Latin translations from it, it can’t be helped. Most English translations are hopeless. The best are in prose.”(Ezra Pound. Letter to Iris Barry. July 1916. L 87).( SAPPHO IN POUND’S THIRD OPERA, COLLIS O HELICONII )I would still say that Pound`s musical interest & experimentation ( Classical Greek and Latin, 11th- and 12th-century troubadours like Arnaut Daniel and Gaucelm Faidi, French trouvères like Guillaume le Vinier, and their 14th- and 15th-century heirs like Dante, Cavalcanti and Villon ) were an extended branch, or outgrowth, of his colossal studies in versification. The sound, not semantics!Arthur Daniel, if Pound were asked to give a name of his idea forerunner of whom he said: “when the Provençal [language] was growing weary, and it was to be seen if it could last, and [he] tried to make almost a new language, or at least to enlarge the Langue d’Oc, and make new things possible” —Make it new! The famous motto.OBLIGATORY listening, a different reading of Sestina Altaforte. If you do not hear the music, Sir, God help thee…So, how does understanding of music impact poetry? — Some say intrinsic, and some have not given it a thought or two. Same goes with criticism & analysis.
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What are the most used spam words for classifieds or advertisements in India?
In India, Advertising is most popular to signNow peoples and promote your business, but there are several words which are considered as Spam by the auto bots. Here is the list of spam words which i recommend you to not use it in E-mail marketing or any kind of marketing or advertising medium.Note:- I will also upload Image at last so that you can save it in your mobile and view the list without searching on Quora again.List:- 4UClaims you are a winnerFor instant accessAccept credit cardsClaims you registered with Some Kind of PartnerFor just $ (some amt)Act now! Don’t hesitate!Click belowFree accessAdditional incomeClick here linkFree cell phoneAddresses on CDClick to removeFree consultationAll naturalClick to remove mailtoFree DVDAmazingCompare ratesFree grant moneyApply OnlineCompete for your businessFree hostingAs seen onConfidentially on all ordersFree installationAuto email removalCongratulationsFree investmentAvoid bankruptcyConsolidate debt and creditFree leadsBe amazedCopy accuratelyFree membershipBe your own bossCopy DVDsFree moneyBeing a memberCredit bureausFree offerBig bucksCredit card offersFree previewBill 1618Cures baldnessFree priority mailBilling addressDear emailFree quoteBillion dollarsDear friendFree sampleBrand new pagerDear somebodyFree trialBulk emailDifferent reply toFree websiteBuy directDig up dirt on friendsFull refundBuying judgmentsDirect emailGet It NowCable converterDirect marketingGet paidCall freeDiscusses search engine listingsGet started nowCall nowDo it todayGift certificateCalling creditorsDon’t deleteGreat offerCan’t live withoutDrastically reducedGuaranteeCancel at any timeEarn per weekHave you been turned down?Cannot be combined with any other offerEasy termsHidden assetsCash bonusEliminate bad creditHome employmentCashcashcashEmail harvestHuman growth hormoneCasinoEmail marketingIf only it were that easyCell phone cancer scamExpect to earnIn accordance with lawsCents on the dollarFantastic dealIncrease salesCheck or money orderFast Viagra deliveryIncrease trafficClaims not to be selling anythingFinancial freedomInsuranceClaims to be in accordance with some spam lawFind out anythingInvestment decisionClaims to be legalFor freeIt's effectiveJoin millions of AmericansNo questions askedReverses agingLaser printerNo sellingRisk freeLimited time onlyNo strings attachedRound the worldLong distance phone offerNot intendedS 1618Lose weight spamOff shoreSafeguard noticeLower interest ratesOffer expiresSatisfaction guaranteedLower monthly paymentOffers couponSave $Lowest priceOffers extra cashSave big moneyLuxury carOffers free (often stolen) passwordsSave up toMail in order formOnce in lifetimeScore with babesMarketing solutionsOne hundred percent freeSection 301Mass emailOne hundred percent guaranteedSee for yourselfMeet singlesOne time mailingSent in complianceMember stuffOnline biz opportunitySerious cashMessage contains disclaimerOnline pharmacySerious onlyMLMOnly $Shopping spreeMoney backOpportunitySign up free todayMoney makingOpt inSocial security numberMonth trial offerOrder nowSpecial promotionMore Internet trafficOrder statusStainless steelMortgage ratesOrders shipped by priority mailStock alertMulti level marketingOutstanding valuesStock disclaimer statementName brandPennies a dayStock pickNew customers onlyPeople just leave money laying aroundStop snoringNew domain extensionsPlease readStrong buyNigerianPotential earningsStuff on saleNo age restrictionsPrint form signatureSubject to creditNo catchPrint out and faxSupplies are limitedNo claim formsProduced and sent outTake action nowNo costProfitsTalks about hidden chargesNo credit checkPromise you …!Talks about prizesNo disappointmentPure profitTells you it’s an adNo experienceReal thingTerms and conditionsNo feesRefinance homeThe best ratesNo gimmickRemoval instructionsThe following formNo inventoryRemove in quotesThey keep your money — no refund!No investmentRemove subjectThey’re just giving it awayNo medical examsRemoves wrinklesThis isn’t junkNo middlemanReply remove subjectThis isn’t spamNo obligationRequires initial investmentUniversity diplomasNo purchase necessaryReserves the rightUnlimitedUnsecured credit/debtWe honor allWill not believe your eyesUrgentWeekend getawayWinnerUS dollarsWhat are you waiting for?WinningVacation offersWhile supplies lastWork at homeViagra and other drugsWhile you sleepYou have been selectedWants credit cardWho really wins?Your incomeWe hate spamWhy pay more?Image:-Thank you, if possible, Please visit my website:- www.statusfactory.in
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How did people feel after the fall of Rome?
In a way, it is correct to say that life went on as normal; which is not to say, of course, that there was anything normal about life at all, in those days and years and centuries.The Fall of the Western Roman Empire was a long agony, so we’d be best served by limiting our scope to the two most traumatic events: the sack of Rome by the Arian (non-Catholic Christian) Visigoths in 410 AD (800 exact years after Brennus’ Gauls) and the final collapse of Roman Italy in 476 AD (in Ravenna, capital of the Western Empire, Skirian (?) General Odoacer deposes his titular boss Romulus Augustus and crowns himself King of Italy and vassal of the Eastern Emperor); but first, a premise on the two very different sets of witnesses.The one cultural event monopolizing the debates of the era is the slow victory of Christianity over traditional Roman religion: the Romans of 410 had barely anything but blood in common with Scipio, Caesar or even Trajan. Not even the Latin language itself, as words irredeemably lost their old meaning: fides went from meaning “commitment”, “word of honor” (~besa) to “blind belief”; gratia went from “goodwill”, “friendliness” to “divine intervention”; persona went from “[theater] mask” to “human being” (replacing the usual homo with a very explicit metaphor on the emptiness of Man); damnatio went from “penal punitive measure” to “life failure”; a daemon went from being a “supernatural” force to a “supernaturally evil” one[1]; salus went from “deliverance” to “salvation” and then, in Medieval Romance, to “health”, through a process of normalization of Christian theological vocabulary; etc.[2] The “uneasy coexistence of Science and Faith” is a concept a Pagan Roman would have lacked the very words to formulate.One may of course dismiss this as an overly technical observation, but the fact is, upheavals this thorough are not normal in history: they are artificial, sustained interventions with a purpose, and as such are both cause and consequence of extremely unusual social circumstances — I’ve written about the Nazis’ kindred efforts, but the Soviets and other Communists acted in this direction too (eg. power — vlast’, pushtet, etc. — went on to mean “government”, and was normally used with that meaning by non-activists: putting yourself against “the System” meant putting yourself against Soviet Power, an almost metaphysical-sounding concept), and they were all following the logic expressed with dazzling clarity by George Orwell in a little gem, his scholarly appendix to 1948:“The purpose of Newspeak was not only to provide a medium of expression for the world-view and mental habits proper to the devotees of Ingsoc, but to make all other modes of thought impossible. It was intended that when Newspeak had been adopted once and for all and Oldspeak forgotten, a heretical thought — that is, a thought diverging from the principles of Ingsoc — should be literally unthinkable, at least so far as thought is dependent on words. Its vocabulary was so constructed as to give exact and often very subtle expression to every meaning that a Party member could properly wish to express, while excluding all other meanings and also the possibility of arriving at them by indirect methods. This was done partly by the invention of new words, but chiefly by eliminating undesirable words and by stripping such words as remained of unorthodox meanings, and so far as possible of all secondary meanings whatever. To give a single example. The word free still existed in Newspeak, but it could only be used in such statements as ‘This dog is free from lice’ or ‘This field is free from weeds’. It could not be used in its old sense of ‘politically free’ or ‘intellectually free’ since political and intellectual freedom no longer existed even as concepts, and were therefore of necessity nameless.”— Appendix: The Principles of NewspeakThe Fall of the Western Empire intertwines with such and other (much larger, and longer) processes, of which it ends up constituting but a chapter.We think of the ruins, of course: those are what remains to speak on behalf of it all, the mere shell. But what about the men inhabiting those ruins — what was lost within men, before the walls even started giving in? Look at what is missing in the picture of a modern ruin.Not just language, lifestyle and hopes changed, but the very nature of thought down to what people consider obvious and what they don’t: matters of behavior, of ethics, of one’s knee-jerk ideas of “good” and “evil”; but also the deeper cosmological roots of people’s worldview: does time have a beginning? Is it a line going in one direction, or is it a disorderly succession of progress and regress, with no underlying “goal” or purpose, but with recurring patterns? Are our senses helping us or hindering us in making sense of the world? Do you get to the truth by adding or subtracting? Is knowledge a journey or is it the destination? Is what we live life, or is it a tricky, lying, dangerous prelude to life? The answers to these questions were so blatantly obvious to the man of the street before and after roughly the 3rd to 7th Centuries, but opposite answers to all the above questions would be given in those two eras. What happened during the centuries comprising the Fall of Rome was nothing short of the greatest Cultural Revolution in European history, and the contemporaries’ experience of the traumatizing, extremely unsettling and unpredictable geopolitical upheavals that riddled those years was obviously marked by the still-ongoing debate on the very foundations of life.It is indeed a conflict that has lost its dramatic poignancy to our eyes, and that we’ve grown used to see as a “frozen” horror at the root of the West, a mere footnote, perhaps: but the violence was no less than what tv newscasts from recent years might have shocked us with, and the stakes — much, much higher.One of the cardinal incidents from the time of these culture wars is the debate regarding the Altar to Victoria in the Roman Senate, in 384 AD — four years after the Edict of Thessalonica and twenty-six years before Alaric’s Sack of Rome — which started with Pagan praefectus urbis (“governor” of Rome) Symmachus’ plea with the Emperors Valentinian II (West) and Theodosius I (East) to restore the golden statue, which had presided over all Senate sessions since before the Punic Wars, until removed a few years earlier. In a mix of Roman Nationalism, allegiance to Imperial authority and earnest piety, Symmachus pleads:9. Romam nunc putemus assistere, atque his vobiscum agere sermonibus: “Optimi principes, patres patriae reveremini annos meos, in quos me pius ritus adduxit. Utar cerimoniis avitis; neque enim poenitet. Vivam meo more, quia libera sum. Hic cultus in leges meas orbem redegit: haec sacra Hannibalem a moenibus, a Capitolio Senonas repulerunt. Ad hoc ergo servata sum, ut longaeva reprehendar? Videro quod instituendum putatur; sera tamen et contumeliosa emendatio senectutis.”10. Ergo diis patriis, diis indigetibus pacem rogamus. Aequum est quidquid omnes colunt, unum putari. Eadem spectamus astra, commune coelum est, idem nos mundus involvit. Quid interest qua quisque prudentia verum requirat? Uno itinere non potest perveniri ad tam grande secretum. Sed haec otiosorum disputatio est: nunc preces, non certamina offerimus.——9. Let us now imagine that Rome herself were before you and addressed you in these words: “Excellent princes, fathers of the fatherland, respect my age, which my pious rites allowed me to signNow. Let me follow the ancestral ceremonies, for I do not repent of them. Let me live after my own fashion, for I am free. This worship subdued the world to my laws, these sacred rites kept Hannibal from the walls, and the Senones from the Capitol. Have I been saved to see this, to be reproached in my old age? I shall consider the nature of what is being proposed for adoption; but reproaching the elderly is untimely and arrogant.”10. Thus, we ask for the gods of our fathers and for the gods of the land to be afforded peace. It is fair to consider all that men worship as one same thing: we observe the same stars, one sky is above all of us, the same world involves us: what matters which wisdom we rely on, in our quest for truth? A single path cannot lead to solving such a grandiose mystery. But these are moot disquisitions: we are now offering prayers, not diatribes.[3]Far from being mere syncretism or relativism or oecumenic imperialism or missionaryism or the consequence of a Spermatikos Logos[4] (a concept best synthesized as “whatever they got right is ours, because they managed to catch a glimpse of our truth” — eg. check paragraph 12 here), the bolded sentence above is the expression of the Pagan trust in the evocative power of human research and memory, rather than revelation, which would in itself be shared by all men and thus common to all “natural” religions: I’ve touched upon this fundamental doctrine, known in its practical results as interpretatio, in an older answer of mine comparing the Greek god Ares with Roman Mars:We in the modern world are more used to the Abrahamic understanding of theological knowledge being revealed unto mankind by the deity through men temporarily inspired to repeat God’s very own words into a holy book: this is the principle that makes Abrahamic religions “exclusionary” (a much better label than “monotheistic”, as argued by prof. Jan Assmann [more on him below]); but ancient paganism saw the source of theological knowledge in men particularly sensitive to being possessed by Muses/Camenes/goddesses linked to a general, underlying Memory of the world, who dictated to their countrymen bits of deeper knowledge — and those could easily turn out to coincide with some parts of the neighboring culture’s imperfect knowledge of the foundations of the world (a common occurrence, since there usually were distant but shared Indo-European roots to European foreigners): since cosmology and theology were seen as ever-perfectable fields of inquiry, other cultures’ intuitions were welcome into your own knowledge, if the two were compatible — this is the principle underlying interpretatio.The newly-triumphant cult would have nothing of this, of course; more precisely, the new Abrahamic religion had a very hard time even conceiving of these premises — the gap between the two traditions’ outlook was simply too huge for bridges, and once you joined the new cult, you accepted an exclusive and jealous authority that made you grow very distant from the premise itself of Paganism.As soon as Symmachus’ plea was heard, Archbishop of Milan (and later Saint as well as modern Patron Saint of that city) Ambrose, who had great influence on the young Western Emperor, wrote him two letters as counterargument (epistulae 17, 18 — here in English), and his position eventually won.The first letter was written by an alarmed Ambrose before having a chance to read Symmachus’ plea:1. Cum omnes homines, qui sub dicione Romana sunt, vobis militent, imperatoribus terrarum atque principibus, tum ipsi vos omnipotenti deo et sacrae fidei militatis. Aliter enim salus tuta esse non poterit, nisi unusquisque deum verum, hoc est, deum Christianorum, a quo cuncta reguntur, veraciter colat; ipse enim solus verus est deus, qui intima mente veneretur: “Dii enim gentium daemonia”, sicut scriptura dicit.2. Huic igitur vero deo quisque militat et, qui intimo colendum recipit affectu, non dissimulationem, non conniventiam, sed fidei studium et devotionis inpendit. Postremo si non ista, consensum saltem aliquem non debet colendis idolis et profanis caerimoniarum cultibus exhibere. Nemo enim deum fallit, cui omnia etiam cordis occulta manifesta sunt.[…]6. Nullus obrepat iuniori aetati tuae! Sive ille gentilis est, qui ista deposcit, non debet mentem tuam vinculis suae superstitionis innectere, sed proprio studio docere et admonere te debet, quemadmodum verae fidei studere debeas, quando ille tanto motu veri vana defendit. Deferendum meritis clarorum virorum et ego suadeo, sed deum certum est omnibus praeferendum.7. Si de re militari est consulendum, debet exercitati in proeliis viri exspectari sententia, consilium conprobari, quando de religione tractatus est, deum cogita! Nullius iniuria est, cui deus omnipotens antefertur. Habet ille sententiam suam.[…]14. Quid respondebis sacerdoti dicenti tibi: Munera tua non quaerit ecclesia, quia templa gentilium muneribus adornasti? Ara Christi dona tua respuit, quoniam aram simulacris fecisti; vox enim tua, manus tua et subscriptio tua, opus est tuum. Obsequium tuum dominus Iesus recusat et respuit, quoniam idolis obsecutus es; dixit enim tibi: «Non potestis duobus dominis servire» (Matth. 6,24). Privilegia tua sacratae deo virgines non habent et vindicant virgines Vestae? Cur sacerdotes dei requiris, quibus petitiones profanas gentilium praetulisti? Alieni erroris societatem suscipere non possumus.——1. Even as all men that live under Roman domination fight for you, Emperors of the Earth and sovereigns, you in turn fight for almighty God and for the Holy Faith. Salvation could otherwise not be assured, if everyone did not earnestly worship the true God, that is, the God of the Christians, by Whom all things are ruled; He is indeed the one true God, who is worshipped within the deepest of one’s soul: “For the gods of the Gentiles are daemonic things [“daemonia” in the Latin]”, as the Scripture says [Ps. xcv. 5].2. It is for this reason that whoever fights for this true God and accepts the principle that He is to be worshipped with intimate participation, devotes himself not to dissimulation, not to connivance, but to the practice of faith and adoration. At the very least, if he doesn’t engage in this, he shall not give his consent to the worship of idols nor to the celebration of profane cults. For nobody escapes God, to Whom even the deepest of all hearts appears clearly.[…]6. Let nobody take advantage of your young age! If he is a Gentile who asks such things of you, he must not clutch your mind with the fetters of his own superstition, but he must rather teach you and exhort you by [the example of] his own dedication how strongly you should dedicate yourself to the practice of the True Faith, whenever he puts so much true effort into defending empty things. I too suggest you respect the achievements of great men, but God obviously must come before everyone else.7. If a matter of warfare were at hand, you would seek the advice of a man who has become expert by going through many battles, and then follow his suggestions; when it is a matter of religion, think of God! Nobody shall be offended if almighty God is put before him. Let the other man have his own mind on this.[…]14. What will you answer to the priest who tells you: “The Church doesn’t want your gifts, for you have adorned the Gentiles’ temples with your gifts. The Altar of Christ spits away your endowment, for you have built an altar to an image; for yours is the voice, yours is the hand and yours is the signature — yours is then the work. Lord Jesus rejects your respects and spits them back to you, for you have respected the idols; he did tell you: «You cannot serve two masters» [Matth. vi, 24]. The virgins consecrated to God won’t accept your sponsorship, while the virgins of Vesta expect it? Why do you seek the ministers of God for those requests you preferred to first hear from the profane Nations? We cannot burden ourselves with another’s errors.”Letter 18, on the other hand, is a more technical counterargument to Symmachus’ many specific points. Here are some ideological highlights:1. Cum vir clarissimus praefectus urbis Symmachus ad clementiam tuam retulisset, ut ara, quae de urbis Romae curia sublata fuerat, redderetur loco et tu, imperator, licet adhuc in minoris aevi tirocinio florentibus novus annis, fidei tamen virtute veteranus obsecrata gentilium non probares, eodem quo conperi puncto libellum obtuli. Quo licet conprehenderim, quae suggestioni necessaria viderentur, poposci tamen exemplum mihi relationis dari.2. Itaque non fidei tuae ambiguus, sed providus cautionis, et pii certus examinis, hoc sermone relationis adsertioni respondeo hoc unum petens, ut non verborum elegantiam, sed vim rerum exspectandam putes. […] Volve, quaeso, atque excute sectam gentilium! Pretiosa et grandia sonant, veri effeta defendunt. Deum loquuntur, simulacrum adorant.[…]4. In prima propositione, flebili Roma questu sermonis inlacrimat veteres, ut ait, cultus caerimoniarum requirens. Haec sacra, inquit, Hannibalem a moenibus, a Capitolio Senonas repulerunt. Itaque dum sacrorum potentia praedicatur, infirmitas proditur. Ergo Hannibal diu sacris insultavit Romanis et diis contra se dimicantibus usque ad muros urbis vincendo pervenit. Cur se obsideri passi sunt, pro quibus deorum suorum arma pugnabant?5. Nam de Senonibus quid loquar, quos Capitolii secreta penetrantes Romanae reliquiae non tulissent, nisi eos pavido anser strepitu prodidisset? En quales templa Romana praesules habent! Ubi tunc erat Iuppiter? An in ansere loquebatur?6. Verum quid negem sacrorum ritus militasse Romanis? Sed etiam Hannibal eosdem deos colebat. Utrum volunt igitur? Eligant. Si in Romanis vicerunt sacra, in Carthaginiensibus ergo superata sunt; si in Carthaginiensibus triumphata, nec Romanis utique profuerunt.7. […] Venite et discite in terris caelestem militiam. Hic vivimus et illic militamus. Caeli mysterium doceat me deus ipse, qui condidit, non homo, qui se ipsum ignoravit. Cui magis de deo quam deo credam? Quomodo possum vobis credere, qui fatemini vos ignorare quod colitis?8. Uno, inquit, itinere non potest perveniri ad tam grande secretum. Quod vos ignoratis, id nos dei voce cognovimus. Et quod vos suspicionibus quaeritis, nos ex ipsa sapientia dei et veritate conpertum habemus. Non congruunt igitur vestra nobiscum. Vos pacem diis vestris ab imperatoribus obsecratis, nos ipsis imperatoribus a Christo pacem rogamus. Vos manuum vestrarum adoratis opera, nos iniuriam ducimus omne, quod fieri potest, deum putari. Non vult se deus in lapidibus coli. Denique etiam ipsi philosophi vestri ista riserunt.9. Quodsi vos ideo Christum deum negatis, quia illum mortuum esse non creditis - nescitis enim, quod mors illa carnis fuerit, non divinitatis, quae fecit, ut credentium iam nemo moriatur - quid vobis inprudentius, qui contumeliose colitis et honorifice derogatis; vestrum enim deum lignum putatis. O contumeliosa reverentia! Christum mori potuisse non creditis. O honorifica pervicacia!—1. Since the esteemed Praefect of the City Symmachus has entrusted your clemency with a plea to restore the altar, which had once been removed from the roman Curia; and since you, Emperor, despite being in your young age and thus like a fresh soldier, are in fact like a veteran in your faith, you haven’t granted the Gentiles’ pleas. When I came to know of this, I sent you a document through which, in order to understand what suggestion you may need, I asked for a copy of the original request.2. Thus, not out of doubt in your faith, but with an eye to caution, and secure in your pious wisdom, I answer with these words what was asserted in the original request, with but one demand — that you look not at the elegance of my words, but rather at the strenght of my arguments. Look, I beg you, and observe with great care the Gentiles’ sect! They speak of precious and lofty things, but they defend nothingness. They speak of God, but they worship objects.[…]4. In the first argument, Rome makes a tearful speech, lamenting and requesting, as she says, the old cults’ ceremonies back. These rites, she says, have once warded off Hannibal from the walls, and the Senones from the Capitol. Yet, even as the might of these rites is extolled, their weakness appears. Because Hannibal long insulted the Roman rites and gods that were fighting against him, so long as he signNowed the walls, one victory after the other. Why did they suffer being besieged, if their gods were fighting for their side?5. Or should I speak of the Senones, who, having penetrated the holy Capitol, wouldn’t have been repulsed, hadn’t a fearful goose betrayed them with its cackling? Here, what guardians do Roman temples have! And where was Jupiter then? Or was he speaking through that goose?6. Indeed, why should I deny that those holy rites were aiding the Romans? But Hannibal too was worshipping the same gods! Which is it, then? Let them pick one. If those rites won the day for the Romans, then the Carthaginian ones have been useless; if they led to the Carthaginians’ triumphs, then they hadn’t been of much use to the Romans.7. […] Come and discover that, here on Earth, there is a divine army. Here we live and here we fight. Let the Heavens’ secrets be taught to me by God Himslef, who created them, not by man, who doesn’t even know himself. Who is more authoritative about God that God? How can I believe you, who admit to ignoring what you worship?8. “One path alone”, he says, “cannot lead to the bottom of such a great mystery.” What you ignore, we have learnt from God’s own voice. And what you seek through hypotheses, we know that in detail through God’s own wisdom and through Truth. Your views, then, do not align with ours. You beg from the Emperor peace for your gods, ourselves we beg from Christ peace for our Emperors. You worship the fruit of your hands, we consider it offensive to deem a god whatever can be made into one. God doesn’t want to be worshipped in stones. After all, your own philosophers have laughed at such things.9. If you can similarly bring yourselves to deny that Christ is God, since you cannot believe that he may have died — for you ignore that that was the death of the flesh, not the Godliness’, undergone so that no believer may ever die again — what is less wise than yourselves, who worship him offensively, and insult Him by your adoration? You believe your god to be a piece of wood! What offensive worship! You cannot believe that Christ may have died. What an elegant wickedness!I’m keeping from quoting more for the sake of readability, but the three documents and the two sides’ arguments are fascinating to say the least. As a last curiosity, elsewhere (ep. 18:10) Ambrose asks polemically: “But, he says, the old altars must be given back to the idols, and the ornaments to the temples. Let them ask this of someone their fellow in superstition: the Christian Emperor has learnt to honor the Christ’s altar only. Why do they try to have pious hands and faithful eyes lend themselves to their sacrilege? Let our Emperor’s voice sing the praises of the Christ and speak of Him only, for he feels His truth, «as the heart of the King is held in God’s hand» [Prov. xxi, 1]. What Gentile Emperor ever raised an Altar to the Christ anyway?”Severus Alexander (r. 222–235), cousin and successor of the infamous Elagabalus, seems to have counted, among his guardian Lares, not just his imperial predecessors and his ancestors, but also “enlightened souls” such as Apollonius of Tyana, Orpheus, Abraham and Jesus Christ.But that had been the case in times long gone and never to return.Statues were at the center of many acts of violence throughout the Empire, as were in Germanic lands the irminsûl (pillars), sacred trees and groves (true to Exodus 34:13: “But ye shall destroy their altars, break their images, and cut down their groves”) and their Pagan worshippers were taunted as if they believed the object itself to house the deity — which thus became worth deriding as mere, dumb “pieces of wood” (you can see one such scene from the film Agora (2009), among other artistic depictions) — whereas they were in fact seen as tangible aid to memory, which was the one and only source of “religious authority” throughout all Indo-European Paganism: whether in the shape of the oldest Pagan cults — the ancestors’ tracks, faces, gestures and belongings — or in the shape of Muses (Mousa < *montja: “she who remembers [smth. to s.o.]” < PIE *men: “thought”; they were also known to be the daughters of Mnemosyne, “memory”) inspiring the Poets who would then teach religion to other men, poets such as Hesiod, Orpheus and many others. At one point, when the poets’ task was taken up by philosophy — as Nietzsche cannily noticed — the latter weakened this worldview by abstracting and rationalizing it beyond the interpretive means and knowledge of the day.“Even outside of the parameters of our current sensitivities, it is indisputable that triumphant Christianity displayed an extreme intolerance towards traditional cults […]. Faced with a doctrine manifesting itself under a totalitarian shape, then, the Pagans had no easy task on their hands, but we must on the other hand acknowledge that they resorted to arguments that, to a Christian audience, would have sounded highly unconvincing. […] They were themselves as rigid in their positions as their adversaries were. The debate between Christians and Pagans witnessed the confrontation between two statements that were by their own nature absolute.”— F. Paschoud, Christian intolerance as seen and judged by Pagans[5]I would counter the bolded part of this excerpt by a scholar our contemporary by reminding the patient reader of the Appendix on Newspeak I quoted above: rather than being rigid or even outspoken (as only a handful of authors seem to have been — Celsus, Julian, Zosimus — and certainly nowhere near the intensity normal among their Abrahamic opponents), the Pagans lacked the very ideological infrastructure to even conceive the mental framework their opponents wandered through with “exact and often very subtle” scrupulousness, and if they may seem insightful to us, modern readers, it is only insofar they supply ideas very difficult for ourselves to produce: in this case, the Christian “Newspeak” limited the outsiders’ capacity to understand orthodoxy even more than it did the insiders’ ability to speak heresy, and the historical impact Abrahamism would have on culture was too huge to be foreseeable to either side — we too have slowly started picturing it around the Enlightenment, after all. Moreover, Paganism certainly was “absolute” — a religion that isn’t would be a strange sight — but not at all militantly absolute, nor in any way an oecumenical (“for the whole inhabited world”), catholic (“towards the whole [world]”), orthodox (“right opinion”) tradition: traditional Paganism left alone those who wanted no part of it, and I agree with Jan Assman’s relabeling the old terms “Monotheistic” and “Polytheistic” as “Exclusionary” and “Inclusionary” forms of religiosity.Saint George topples the Pagan idols; Dečani, 14th Century. Images of these frescoes come from here: a (by no means complete) list of Christian Saints who destroyed religious imagesLeft, a Christian Saint destroying a Pagan statue; Right, in an ironic turn of events that came about half a millennium after the scope of this answer, the Christian Iconoclasts took to destroying Christian religious images: depicted in the (possibly clandestine, at the time it was produced) Chludov Psalter, chief Iconoclast John the Grammarian’s face happens to have rubbed out. This is how the Iconoclasts’ churches ended up looking, in 9th Century Costantinople.[6] By then, Charlemagne had also sanguinarily managed to evangelize modern Germany, mostly through mass decapitations.[7][8]The political attempt at defending traditional religion in the Empire ended with the sudden death of traditionalistic Emperor Julian (the so-called “Apostate”, r. 361–363 AD) and the highly emblematic Battle of the Frigidus in 394 AD, which got the aptly-named Pagan usurper Eugenius off the scene; but the Lupercalia were celebrated in Central Italy until as late as the 5th Century, when Pope Gelasius I finally abolished them and possibly had them replaced with the celebration of the Purification of the Virgin Mary; and it is well known that the very slow penetration of Christianity into the countryside (“pagan”, after all, means “village-dweller”, as the Germanic “heathen” means “heath-dweller”) was had at the cost of a thorough syncretism with some elements of the local traditional cults.Meanwhile, on the military/administrative side, the Aurelian Walls were built in 271–275 AD, as Rome had vastly outgrown the existing Servian Walls (built six centuries before) many centuries before anybody even thought of building the newer ones — that Aurelian did so upon putting an end to half a century of anarchy hints to just how precarious the very heart of Empire had come to be perceived as. Rome ceased to be the Capital ten years later, Christianity would be depenalized another thirty years later, and finally made the sole religion another half century later, in 380 AD.Around the time these new walls were built, Rome was already down to 350 000 inhabitants from the estimated 1 or 2 mln (top estimate 3.5 mln)[9]that used to call her home; Alexandria had 216 000; six coastal cities were between 90 and 50 thousand inhabitants, the rest were all below 40 000. Rome herself would end up with a few thousand inhabitants by the end of the 5th Century.The Visigothic Sack of Rome — 410 AD: Christian reactions.Having laid the backdrop clear in its complexity, let’s get down to military/political upheavals and their written record, and let’s start with those contemporary writers that were, to all intents and purposes, the Culture of the day: the Christians.Jerome (347-420), a devout Christian, Father of the Church, quite open to dialogue but struggling with his identity (he famously dreamt of a voice accusing him: “You’re no Christian, you are a Ciceronean!”[10]) as well as a patron of sorts to translators, given his extensive, high-quality theorical and practical work on the only translation of the Bible the Latin West would use for a full millennium, was following a trend quite popular in his day and living as a hermit in Palestine when news of the 410 AD sack of Rome — no longer the capital since 286 — signNowed him. Alaric’s siege had started already in 408 AD, and in 409 Jerome had written to a widow by the name of Ageruchia:123.16–17 [16.] Verum quid ago? Fracta navi de mercibus disputo. Qui tenebat, de medio fit, et non intelligimus Antichristum appropinquare, quem Dominus Jesus Christus interficiet spiritu oris sui. “Vae praegnantibus, et nutrientibus in illa die”; quorum utrumque de fructibus nuptiarum est. Praesentium miseriarum pauca percurram. Quod rari hucusque residemus, non nostri meriti, sed Domini misericordiae est. Innumerabiles et ferocissimae nationes universas Gallias occuparunt. Quidquid inter Alpes et Pyrenaeum est, quod Oceano et Rheno includitur, Quadus, Wandalus, Sarmata, Halani, Gipedes, Heruli, Saxones, Burgundiones, Alemani, et, o lugenda respublica! hostes Pannonii vastarunt. “Etenim Assur venit cum illis”. Moguntiacum, nobilis quondam civitas, capta atque subversa est, et in Ecclesia multa hominum millia trucidata. Vangiones longa obsidione deleti. Remorum urbs praepotens, Ambiani, Attrebatae, extremique hominum Morini, Tornacus, Nemetae, Argentoratus, translatae in Germaniam. Aquitaniae, Novemque populorum, Lugdunensis, et Narbonensis provinciae, praeter paucas urbes populata sunt cuncta. Quas et ipsas foris gladius, intus vastat fames. Non possum absque lacrymis Tolosae facere mentionem, quae ut hucusque non rueret, sancti Episcopi Exuperii merita praestiterunt. Ipsae Hispaniae jam jamque periturae, quotidie contremiscunt, recordantes irruptionis Cimbricae, et quidquid alii semel passi sunt, illae semper timore patiuntur.17. Caetera taceo, ne videar de Dei desperare clementia. Olim a mari Pontico usque ad Alpes Julias, non erant nostra, quae nostra sunt. Et per annos triginta fracto Danubii limite, in mediis Romani imperii regionibus pugnabatur. Aruerunt vetustate lacrymae. Praeter paucos senes, omnes in captivitate et obsidione generati, non desiderabant, quam non noverant libertatem. Quis hoc credet? quae digno sermone historiae comprehendent? Romam in gremio suo, non pro gloria, sed pro salute pugnare? imo ne pugnare quidem, sed auro et cuncta supellectile vitam redimere? Quod non vitio Principum, qui vel religiosissimi sunt, sed scelere semibarbari accidit proditoris, qui nostris contra nos opibus armavit inimicos.[…]Hannibal, de Hispaniae finibus orta tempestas, cum vastasset Italiam, vidit urbem, nec ausus est obsidere. Pyrrhum tanta tenuit Romani nominis reverentia, ut deletis omnibus, e propinquo recederet loco: nec audebat victor aspicere, quam regum didicerat civitatem. […] et utriusque provinciae populi Romani vectigales sunt. Nunc ut omnia prospero fine eveniant, praeter nostra quae amisimus, non habemus quod victis hostibus auferamus. Potentiam Romanae urbis, ardens Poeta describens, ait: “Quid satis est, si Roma parum est?”Quod nos alio mutemus elogio: “Quid salvum est, si Roma perit?”“Non mihi si linguae centum sint, oraque centum,Ferrea vox, omnes captorum dicere poenas,Omnia caesorum percurrere nomina possim.”—*—
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