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FAQs
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How are cracked versions of software created and why are developers not able to prevent it?
Cracked versions of software are created with the use of debuggers. (A debugger is a special type of software that lets programmers deconstruct their software into its constituent parts for the purpose of finding bugs, and thus de-bugging. Additionally debuggers can be used for reverse-engineering, or to see what is inside the software, to learn its logic. The latter method is used mostly by malware researchers to study what malware (or computer viruses) do on-the-inside. But it can be also used by an attacker to "crack" (or bypass) legal software registration, or at times, to alter normal behavior of software, for instance by injecting a malicious code into it.)For the sake of this example, I will assume that the software that is being "cracked" was compiled into a native code, and is not a .NET or a JavaScript based application. (Otherwise it will be somewhat trivial to view its source code.) The compiled native code is a bit more tricky "beast" to study. (Native means that the code executes directly by the CPU, GPU, or other hardware.)So let's assume that the goal of an attacker is to bypass the registration logic in the software so that he or she doesn't have to pay for it. (Later for lolz, he or she may also post such "crack" on some shady online forum or on a torrent site so that others can "use" it too and give him or her their appreciation.)For simplicity let's assume that the original logic that was checking for the software registration was written in C++ and was something similar to the following code snippet:In this code sample "RegistrationName" and "RegistrationCode" are special strings of text that a legitimate software user will receive after paying for the license. (The name is usually that person's actual name or their email address, and the code is some string of unique/special characters that is tied to the name.)In the logic above, the function named "isRegistrationCodeGood()" will check if "RegistrationName" and "RegistrationCode" are accepted using some proprietary method. If they are, it will return true. Otherwise false. That outcode will dictate which branch (or scope) the execution will follow.So the logic above will either show that registration failed and quit:Or, if the registration code and name matched, it will save the registration details in persistent storage (such as the File System or System Registry) using the function named "rememberRegistrationParameters()" and then display the message thanking the user for registering:A "cracker" will obviously want to achieve the second result for any registration code that he or she enters. But they have a problem. They do not have the C++ source code, part of which I showed above. (I hope not!)So the only recourse for an attacker is to disassemble the binary code (that always ships with software in the form of .exe and .dll files on Windows, and mostly as Unix executables inside the .app packages on a Mac.) An attacker will then use a debugger to study the binary code and try to locate the registration logic that I singled out above.Next you can see the flowchart for a snippet of code that I showed in C++, presented via a low-level debugger. Or, as the code will be read in the binary form after compilation:(For readability I added comments on the right with the names of functions and variables. They will not be present in the code that an attacker could see.)(To understand what is shown above an attacker will have to have good knowledge of the Assembly language instructions for the native code.)I also need to point out that having a disassembly snippet like the one above is the final result for an attacker. The main difficulty for him or her is to locate it among millions and millions of other similar lines of code. And that is their main challenge. Not many people can do it and that is why software "cracking" is a special skill.So having found the code snippet above in the software binary file a "cracker" has two choices:1) Modify (or patch) the binary.2) Reverse-engineer the "isRegistrationCodeGood()" function and copy its logic to create what is known as a "KeyGen" or "Key Generator."Let's review both:The first choice is quite straightforward. Since an attacker got this far, he or she knows the Intel x64 Instruction Set quite well. So they simply change the conditional jump from "jnz short loc_7FF645671430" at the address 00007FF645671418 (circled in red in the screenshots) to unconditional jump, or "jmp short loc_7FF645671430". This will effectively remove any failed registration code entries and anything that the user types in will be accepted as a valid registration.Also note that this modification can be achieved by changing just one byte in the binary code from 0x75 to 0xEB:But this approach comes with a "price" of modifying the original binary file. For that an attacker needs to write his own "patcher" (or a small executable that will apply the modification that I described above.) The downside of this approach for an attacker is that patching an original executable file will break its digital signature, which may alert the end-user or the vendor. Additionally the "patcher" executable made by an attacker can be easily flagged and blocked by the end-user's antivirus software, or lead criminal investigators to the identity of the attacker.The second choice is a little bit more tricky. An attacker will have to study "isRegistrationCodeGood()" function and copy it into his own small program that will effectively duplicate the logic implemented in the original software and let him generate the registration code from any name, thus giving any unscrupulous user of that software an ability to register it without making a payment.Vendors of many major software products understand the potential impact of the second method and try to prevent it by requiring what is known as "authentication." This is basically a second step after registration, where the software submits registration name to the company's web server that returns a response back to the software of whether the code was legitimate or not. This is done by Microsoft when you purchase Windows (they call it "Activate Windows") and also by signNow, and many other companies. This second step may be done behind-the-scenes on the background while the software is running, and will usually lead to cancellation of prior registration if it was obtained illegally.So now you know how software is "cracked".Let me answer why it is not possible to prevent it. It all boils down to the fact that any software code needs to be read either by CPU (in case of a binary native code) or by an interpreter or a JIT compiler (in case of JavaScript or .NET code.) This means that if there's a way to read/interpret something, no matter how complex or convoluted it is, an attacker with enough knowledge and persistence will be able to read it as well, and thus break it.There is an argument though that cloud-based software is more secure, which is true, since its (binary) code remains on the server and end-users do not have direct access to it. And even though cloud-based software is definitely the future, it has some major drawbacks that will never allow it to fully replace your conventional software. To name just a few:Not everyone has an internet connection, or is willing to upload their data online. Additionally someone’s internet connection can be very expensive or too slow to make the software run very laggy.Then there’s a question of distributed computing. For instance, Blizzard Entertainment would never make “World of Warcraft” to fully run on their servers due to immense computational resources needed to render every single scene for every player they have. Thus it is in their best interest to let each individual user’s computer to do the rendering instead.As a software developer myself, I obviously don't like when people steal software licenses. But I have to accept it and live with it. The good news is that there are not that many people who are willing to go extra mile and search for a cracked version of software. The main problem for those who do, is that by downloading a patched executable, or an attacker's KeyGen or a Patcher, they are effectively "trusting" him or her not to put anything "nasty" into it that was not "advertised on the package" (stuff like trojans, malware, or keyloggers.) So the question for those people becomes -- is it worth the cost of the software license to potentially infect your system with a nasty virus?On the other side of the equation, some developers react very negatively to any attempts to steal their software licenses. (I was there too.) They try to implement all kinds of countermeasures -- anything from tricking reverse-engineers, to adding booby traps in the code that may do something nasty if the code detects that it is being debugged, to obfuscating or scrambling the code, to enforcing all kinds of convoluted DRM schemes, to blocking users from certain countries. I personally try to stay away from all of those measures. And here's why:A) Any kind of anti-reverse-engineering tactics could be bypassed by an attacker with enough persistence. So why bother and waste my time when I can invest that time into adding something useful to my software that will make it more productive for legitimate users?B) Some code packers could create false positives with antivirus software, which is obviously not good for marketing of that software. It also creates unnecessary complexity for the developer to debug the software.C) Adding booby traps in the code can also “misfire” on your legitimate users, which will really infuriate them and can even lead to lawsuits.D) Any DRM scheme will probably catch some 100 illegal users and greatly inconvenience 10,000 legitimate ones. So why do it to your good customers?E) Our statistics show that about 75% of all illegal licenses come from China, Russia, Brazil, to name the worst offenders. (I also understand that the reason may be much lower incomes that people have in those countries.) The main issue for us though was the fact that if we enforce our DRM or add some strong registration authentication, many people that wanted to bypass our registration would simply use a stolen credit card number. And we had no control over it. Our system will use it to send them a legitimate license only to have the payment bounce in weeks time. As a result we would lose the money that were paid for the license, plus the credit card company will impose an additional chargeback fee to our account, which may range from $0.25 to $20 per bad purchase on top of the license cost.F) As was pointed out in the comments, some companies may actually benefit from allowing pirated copies of their software. Microsoft for instance gets a lot of free publicity from people using their Windows OS, the same goes for signNow with their Photoshop. That is a good point that I agree with.So my philosophy is now this -- if someone wants to go extra mile and steal our software, go for it! They went this far to do it anyway, so they probably have a good reason. On the positive side there are so many other customers that appreciate the work that goes into creating software that greatly outnumber those that don’t.PS. Thank you for all your feedback! It makes me feel good that the knowledge I shared is useful to others.
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What are the career options after graduating with a Bachelor's in physics?
There are actually Three things you can do after you ‘earn’ your Bachelor degree in Physics :Continue your studiesGet a Job , orGive a JobAllow me to explain each in detail -Continue your studies :-> Here you have several Options:a) Pursue Masters from IIT by cracking IITJAM or from any other university on Physics and earn a PHd later on. You can also do Integrated PHd by applying and getting a good rank in JEST , TIFR , IISER etc.b) Pursue your Masters from any IIT (or from any other University) and then pursue MTech by cracking GATE. After MTech you can get placed in some PSUs or some reputed MNCs. Many prefer higher studies though (like PHd after Mtech). (P.S - IIT Kharagpur provides Integrated Mtech-PHd for Computer Science and Data Analytics after qualifying in GATE)c) Give an entrance test conducted by few universities for Btech and get into some good Engineering Colleges. (Ex : Jadavpur University in Kolkata conducts an entrance test for students of BSc(Hons) Physics. Qualified Candidates enter into 2nd year of BTech. Likewise Calcutta University provides Btech in Radiophysics.)d) Do Bachelors in Education(BEd) for a Teaching Job.e) MSc on other subjects like Biophysics, RadioPhysics, Geophysics, Instrumentation etc. Ex - MScTech in Geophysics from ISM Dhanbad (Note : the degree mention MScTech not MTech; Both are different).f) Other Masters programme in other disciplines if you want to do it like MCA, MBA, MA, LLB etc. (Being interested in Defence Services, personally I would have preferred Masters from Institute of Defence Studies in Pune and PHd later on— a path very few know or like to tread .)g) If you have a Gap in years after your BSc Physics and possess the thought that you will be unable to share the class with the younger generation, feel free to pursue distance learning through IGNOU. You can pursue your masters on other subjects via IGNOU or sit for an entrance examination for MSc. Physics (distance learning) which by the way IGNOU conducts in collaboration with Indian Institute of Astrophysics (forms available in the month of september).h) You can also pursue higher studies from Foreign universities. Of course you have to crack the competitive exams related for that purpose.2. Get a Job :→ You can Apply for Various entrance examinations for Banks(RBI Grade B, SBI PO, IBPS etc), Railways( ASM, Goods Guard, JE, RPF SI etc) , PSUs or State Units(AAI ATC, Electricity Executives, Forest Guard etc), Armed Forces(AFCAT, CDSE, Coast Guard(only interview) ), Civil Services(UPSC CSE, State CSE, IFoS) and Central/State Police Services( SSC CAPF, UPSC CAPF, SSC CGL etc). Crack these Examinations and earn a respectable service with the Central or State Governments or Banking Sector or PSUs.(PS : If you have completed MSc Physics then you can apply in Indian Navy as an Officer or else not. Indian Navy does not recruit candidates having just BSc in Physics. You either should have BTech or do MSc Physics- the condition valid even in UPSC CDSE recruitment)→ If you want a job in your core field(subject), there are exams like ISRO Scientific Assistant, SSC IMD Scientific Assistant, BHAVINI Scientific Assistant, NCPOR Scientific Assistant(which do not conduct any exam but only Personal Interview), NPCIL Scientific Assistant etc. which too are Govt Organisations that requires Bachelor’s in Physics as a qualification.(PS- If you complete MSc in Physics however you can apply for a relatively higher position in similar organisations for the post of Scientific Officer - Some institutes like BARC donot recruit candidates having a degree less than that of MSc.)You know the craze for Government Jobs, Don’t you? Some Jobs are indeed Earned. :)→ However You can always find a Job in the Corporate Sector. Ex: TCS, WIPRO etc.So, All the very Best if getting a Job is your sole Aim.P.S - Build and Develop Skills via sites(also Android App) like Udemy, Coursera, edX, Skillshare, Codecademy etc. Trust me sometimes recruiters will be much interested if they learn that you have invested some quality time in having knowledge which can give you an edge over other candidates. Also makes your Resume look quite attractive. Moreover guess what, most courses are totally free of Cost. After Completing the Course if you wish to have the valid Certificate with a signature and stamp from reputed universities, you can pay them a certain fee. Totally ok if you dont pay as those digital certificates will not hold much value over regular courses;but do keep in mind the skill you learn can make you top notch over others.Personally I prefer to pay as a token of appreciation. Doesn’t seem much(approx 3k INR & sometimes even only 600 INR) if you consider the fact that the knowledge you receive is immense and magnificent.3. Give a Job :→ Well you know what I am going to say. The Word that became the centre of attention lately in India- ‘Entrepreneurship’.Take risks, try out new ways, give people a source of Income, earn Fortunes and build your own Empire. And the thing is you don’t even need a Bsc or Physics to be a great entrepreneur. You don’t need to work for anyone, You can always work for yourself.But yes to be brutally honest- as lovely as the situation might seem- you will most likely Fail in this venture. Dont get me wrong but what I am saying here is the ‘Reality’. However I haven’t seen or met Entrepreneurs who didnot fail and yet achieved big.Who knows You might become the next Zuckerburg or the next Elon Musk - which by the way if you dont know, Mr. Musk has done his Bachelors in Physics. ;)These are the three things which I feel you can do. The Interest and the Will rests on you and you alone. I hope I was able to remove all your doubts. Still if you have one, feel free to comment.By the way, Upvotes are Welcome. Thank you for the 177 upvotes. Means a lot.All the Best for your future.(>_<) ♡Edit- Thank you Quorans for my first 500 upvotes.
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As a computer science student, what can I learn right now in just 10 minutes that could be useful for the rest of my life?
Have you ever felt that something(like taking backup of files, deleting old files etc.) should automatically happen when you connect your pen-drive to your system?Let us take an example, Suppose your teacher wants you to copy your assignments into his pendrive in front of him. The pen drive contains your final examination paper. You want your ubuntu system to automatically copy all the data from that pen drive to your hard disk automatically in the background (without even opening a copy dialogue). Here is how to do it on ubuntu:1] First let us write a simple shell script which we want to execute whenever a pen drive is connected to our system. Let us write a simple script which copies all data from the connected device to your home directory.First open a new fileemacs $HOME/script.shand add following lines to that file.#!/bin/bash sudo mkdir -p /tmp/test sudo mkdir -p $HOME/device_data sudo mount /dev/sdb1 /tmp/test sudo cp -r /tmp/test/* $HOME/device_data/ sudo umount /tmp/test Save and close the file.This script essentially creates a new directory named "device_data" inside your home folder and copies all the data from the pen drive into device_data directory.(Note: You can write ANYHTING into this script, so use it wisely :P)Now let us make this script executable.sudo chmod +x $HOME/script.sh As this script needs sudo permissions, we need to make it sudo runnable. To do this add the name of the script into sudoers file.Open sudoers file.sudo visudo -f /etc/sudoers Now after the 25th line (%sudo…) add this line
ALL=(ALL) NOPASSWD: /home/ /script.sh So now this script will run with sudo rights but will not ask for password! :)2]Now we need to tell our system to follow OUR rules (i.e execute our script) whenever a pendrive is connected. For this we need to create our own "udev rules" file. This file should be created in '/etc/udev/rules.d' directory.cd /etc/udev/rules.d Open a new file (with sudo rights):sudo emacs 91-myrules.rules Make sure the file name starts with "91". This gives your rules priority over other rules.Now add these lines into that fileACTION=="add", ATTRS{idVendor}=="****", ATTRS{idProduct}=="****", RUN+="/paht/to/your/script.sh" Make sure you enter proper path into RUN variable.Done!!Now plug any pendrive into your system and test this!Note: 1] When you connect your external drive this script will be run and your system won’t be able to use it unless this script execution is complete! So have some patience! :p 2] This answer is written for educational purposes only! Do not misuse it.Thanks Mehak Sharma for promoting the answer! -
Is it mandatory to file FBAR for H1B visa holders?
Yes , it is mandatory to report your foreign bank accounts if your total balance(of all accounts) are over $10000 at any given time,It is a simple form and would not take more than 30 mins to complete. My tax consultant does this for me every year, but it’s pretty simple and you can do it yourself . If you fail to submit FBAR before deadline (Usually June 30) they may impose $10000 penalty per year delinquent.Also, if you are a US resident( i.e physically present in the U.S. during the year for 183 days or more.) it is required to open NRE account and convert your regular savings account to...
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How is the ICSE essay checked?
1.Teachers try to find out the key points in the essay and accordingly marks are allotted.2.Write the essay on the subject matter which the question is asking for instead of deviating from it.3. Do not repeat the same sentences again and again because it may create a wrong impression on the person who is checking your paper.4. Write quotation and highlight them.5. Provide examples if required.6. Teachers look for content and valid point suiting the essay so write the essay accordingly instead of writing 6-7 pages.7. Make less grammatical errors.8. First sketch the point of the essay and then prepare the essay.9. Do not try to copy essay from essay books.10. Write essay which is simple and understandable.11.Make your essay distinct from other candidates.12. Relate it with the current scenario, if required.13. Try to keep yourself aware of current affairs as it can majorly help you in english language exam.14. Practice essay from last ten years it will help you a lot and who knows you may get similar essay to write.15. Read good book of various genre this will help you in increasing your knowledge on various topics and in turn write a good essay for example: biography of some good personality.16. Give mock test which are conducted and get it checked through experts who have vast experience of teaching as they are well aware of marking scheme.17. Practice all type of essay covered in the syllabus so it will help you in the better selection of essay to be attempted.18. You can also prepare your own essay question seeing the current affairs and write on it and get it checked by teachers.19. Revise your essay once you complete your language paper.Suggestions are always welcomed so some more valuable points can be added.Study smart.Good luck.
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What should I look for on my computer if I'm worried about spyware installed by my ex?
Hello concerned user, You are worried about a suspicion that a spyware or keylogger might be installed on your computer? If yes… I would like to educate you more about spyware/keyloggers, what to look for and how to totally get rid of them. For this, I would use the Blazing tools perfect keylogger as a detailed example for you to really understand how spywares work;The Blazing Tools Perfect Keylogger has been chosen for analysis because it has been found hidden in so many Trojans on the Internet and it’s be taught extensively how to get it out totally out of a computer permanently at Rehabculture Hack store. It's a good example of a common hook-type keylogger, although Blazing Tools markets its products to IT administrators and parents, the presence of their keylogger in many Trojans illustrates how people can package legal code and use it for malicious activities. The following features of the "Perfect Keylogger" are of use to anyone trying to spy on an unsuspecting user:Stealth Mode. In this mode no icon is present in the taskbar and the keylogger is virtually hidden.Remote Installation. The keylogger has a feature whereby it can attach to other programs and can be sent by e-mail to install on the remote PC in stealth mode. It will then send keystrokes, screenshots and websites visited to the attacker by e-mail or via FTP.Smart Rename. This feature allows a user to rename all keylogger's executable files and registry entries.This keylogger was installed on a test PC to show you how it works and what to look out for. The following capture, with the help of a tool such as SNAPPER, shows the changes in the files after installing the keylogger, as shown below in Figure 1.Figure 1. File changes made by the Perfect Keylogger.With the help of a free anti-spyware application such as Microsoft Antispyware, the registry entries made by the keylogger as well as its DLLs and EXEs can be seen below in Figure 2.Figure 2. Registry entries, .dll files and .exe files of Keylogger.The keylogger also runs as a background process which can be seen with the help of a tool such as SysInternals' Process Explorer, as shown below in Figure 3.Figure 3. Spyware process running in the background.This same keylogger was next installed on a different test PC through another program's installer and then configured to send keystrokes captured in an email to a test email-id. Ironically, the program used for this example was Spybot Search & Destroy, a legitimate freeware tool that does a good job of detecting spyware. This is a good example of how other legitimate applications can also be used to install spyware, unbeknownst to the reader.The procedure as described above is the Remote Installation feature. The information sent by email was then captured with the help of a network sniffer. For ease-of-use, Ethereal and the corresponding TCP stream is shown below in Figure 4 and Figure 5.Figure 4. Ethereal captures the keylogger's outgoing email.Figure 5. TCP stream of Ethereal capture.Since the content of this email is base64 encoded, the actual output can be seen only after decoding it with a base64 decoder. After passing the output through a base64 decoder, the part of the output of significance is shown as follows:Tuesday, 23 JanuaryIexplore.exe, 10:42 AMPaladion Networks: The Internet Security Architects - Microsoft Internet Explorerahmed_mobarak_1986eg@hotmail.com|alexander [PASSWORD CAPTURED: alexander]It can be seen that the email-id (ahmed_mobarak_1986eg) and the password (alexander) are captured. Similarly, the keylogger can be used to capture all types of passwords including passwords used for proxies, email accounts, and online banking applications. It can also capture programming code typed by a developer, instant messaging text, and the URLs of websites visited by the user.New approaches:With the market being inundated with new anti-spyware products, spyware creators have now resorted to unorthodox methods of sustenance. One such example is the nasty ability of the spyware code to keep reinstalling itself. Although anti-spyware applications can remove the spyware's registry entry from one location, most of them are found lacking in cleaning hidden registry entries that try to have the software reinstalled on boot. Another approach is to make the spyware application load into memory very early in the boot process (before the Operating System loads user-level processes). In this case, when a user tries to uninstall the software with an anti-spyware application, the OS will not allow this as it tries to protect the integrity of a running program (spyware) that it doesn't control.Detection and removal:A spyware application is inherently very different in behavior and operation from a traditional virus or a worm, and therefore to most antivirus software, it may appear as a legitimate program. The fact is, virus signatures are very different from spyware signatures. Firewalls also are ineffective in dealing with them as spyware is either piggybacked with legitimate applications, hidden in a regular image file, or can occur as normal port 80 web traffic.Therefore, the essence of any spyware prevention exercise is first to ensure the operating system is fully patched to known vulnerabilities. The best prevention, aside from switching to less vulnerable operating systems like Mac OS X and Linux, is to educate users that it is not safe to click on anything and everything found on the Web, and they must also install only what is needed. Freebies on the Internet, ones which are often typically advertised in pop-up banners, must be totally abstained from. Other methods of avoiding spyware are to ensure the browser used is configured securely, and to have at least one good spyware detection and removal tool installed. Microsoft Antispyware, Ad-Aware, PestPatrol, and Spy Sweeper are some of the free tools that help in detecting and removing spyware.Please note that spyware is largely, but not exclusively, a problem with Microsoft's Internet Explorer. The user of more modern, feature-rich browsers such as Mozilla Firefox can virtually eliminate the spyware problem altogether. However, it is still the case that some websites are coded to only work with IE, and therefore switching to Firefox may not be a solution for 100% of a user's web surfing needs.Ultimately, the only protection and removal of these spywares/keyloggers is to get a computer security engineer to scan and get rid of these malwares permanently. You can get one at Rehabculture Hack store, because that was where we were taught how to detect and upgrade our system against all trojan horse worms and virus. Be informed, as “Information is power”…
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Can someone give me a short explanation of Henri Bergson's views on free will?
I can.Near the conclusion of Time and Free Will [TFW], his doctoral thesis and first book, wherein all his later views were seeded, Bergson thus summarized his view:Freedom is the relation of the concrete self to the act which it performs. This relation is indefinable, just because we are free. For we can analyze a thing, but not a process … [219][math]\qquad[/math]The Short ExplanationThe qualia of time’s passage are different in kind from the quantities that correspond to its symbolic representations (in which the idea of space is a necessary element).Intellectually, we confuse our representations for reality. We conflate time with space.Spatial thinking necessarily leads to mechanistic, deterministic thinking.The determinations of our Intellect are useful, but ultimately not real nor true.In reality, freedom endures. But whatever endures is intellectually abstracted away.So there is no way to positively define freedom.However posed, the question of freedom must be loaded in favor of determinism.But it is self-evident that we are free.We can come to understand our freedom through an intuition of what ultimately differentiates time from space.And then we can dispense with false metaphysical problems, like the question of freedom.[math]\qquad[/math]A Longer Explanation[math]\,\,[/math]TFW 1/3Bergson begins with a question about psychological phenomena (“psychic states”). He observes that we speak of their intensity, i.e., speak about them in terms of more and less. He asks: are intensities magnitudes? [1–2]If we answer yes, then we’re led to a distinction between extensive and intensive quantity [3]. Bergson thinks this maneuver would be mistake, if for no other reason than an inextensive magnitude seems a contradiction in terms. And he rejects two possible resolutions, that we distinguish intensities (i) by their objective causes (for we can judge an intensity without knowing the nature or magnitude of its cause) [4–5] and (ii) as or by their relation to “atomic movements” (for the sensation [of a movement] is given to consciousness, not movement itself) [6–7].Thus, Bergson cannot dismiss the possibility that there is a genuine difference in kind, and not merely in degree between intensity and magnitude (viz., quality and quantity). {See note A}So he digs deeper into psychological phenomena — on the one hand, affective states like emotions (desire, sorrow, joy, rage, fear), aesthetic judgements (beauty, disgust), and moral impulses (pity); on the other, sensorimotor operations (especially muscular effort; also reflexive action; the perception of temperature, pressure, color, pitch) [8–60].We might suspect that the latter provides an inroad to magnitude [20], but Bergson eventually determines — by way of his signature eclectic reasoning that involves trancendental argumentation and analysis, critical commentary on empirical evidence, aporetics, and ruminations that bear at least superficial resemblance to eidetic reduction — that there is no genuine difference in kind, but only of degree, between the intensities of affective states and of sensorimotor operations. We pass gradually from purely affective sensations to “representative” ones [31–2]. The quality or intensity of a representative sensation is supposed to correspond to the quantity of its external cause; a pure representation is then just the measure of this quantity [39–42].But we confuse our representations for reality. We replace our idea of the quality of the effect with our idea of the quantity of its cause [42] — that is to say, we “promote” changes of quality into variations of magnitude [58]. Bergson’s reasoning for this position is subtle. Suffice to say that, where quantification involves (determinations of) equality or identity, judgements of “more” or “less” intensity do not [61–8]. {See note B}In summary: we substitute a symbolic representation of the magnitude of an external cause for the intensity of a psychic state. This is a mistake [72–4].[math]\,\,[/math]TFW 2/3Our mistake is symptomatic of a more fundamental error: confusion of the living experience of time with the “spatialized” conception of it. {See note C}To get at what this means, Bergson next addresses the concept of number. He holds that, in order to form a concept of number, we must compose it out of units which are at once identical (equal, equivalent) and distinct [75–7].Consider the number 10: contained within it is the idea of a unit (1), plus every step in between that unit and the magnitude in question (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9). In conceiving the number 10, in which all these are present “at once”, we rely on the idea of a succession of units (the act of counting up to 10). When we consider each unit in succession, we only ever have to deal with one unit at a time; but to consider the whole (10), we must retain the successive images of units at once — we juxtapose them in space [78–82]. “Every clear idea of number implies a visual image in space” [79]. Bergson contends that we cannot form any idea of number without an accompanying image of juxtaposition in space [85]. Furthermore, when we assert the “impenetrability” of matter (that two different objects cannot occupy the same location at the same time, on pain of contradiction), we are asserting just this interconnection between number and space [88–9].Bergson argues we must therefore distinguish between two kinds of unity: that which we think of and that which we regard as an object or thing after having thought of it [83]. This leads Bergson to distinguish between two ways of counting, and therefore two kinds of multiplicity: that of quantitatively homogenous material objects juxtaposed in space, and that of qualitatively heterogenous internal psychic states which “interpenetrate” one another. In the first part he argued that psychic states cannot be regarded as numerical until we give them some symbolic representation. Because such representations necessarily include the idea of space, they properly apply only to homogenous multiplicities. Duration and succession, because heterogenous, do not belong to the external world, but only to the conscious mind, and cannot be adequately represented by any symbol [85–7, 120–3, 137–9].To clarify why this must be so, Bergson asks: does space exist independently of its contents (as Kant held)? More so, shall we follow the empiricists, who ask how such contents, having been removed from space, manage to get back in again? Bergson argues that the idea of extensity cannot result from the synthesis of unextended sensations without an act of the mind, akin to an a priori sensibility, which we have discovered is just the intuition of an empty homogenous medium. In fact, the very act of abstraction requires this intuition, which allows us to make clean-cut distinctions, to quantify, to analyze, perhaps even to speak [91–7].But Bergson finds it spurious to conceive of time as an homogenous medium, like space. Were it so, we should expect to reduce one of them to the other, at bottom somehow “the same”. (This was the mistake of the so-called English “associationist” School, for example; see part 3/3 below.) On the contrary, he thinks we ought to conceive of time as entirely heterogenous. The primary evidence in favor of this conception is the heterogenous multiplicity evinced by the qualitative differences we found in our internal psychic states, which endure [98–106].Enter the central notion of Bergsonian philosophy: Duration.Pure duration is the form which the succession of our conscious states assumes when our ego lets itself live, when it refrains from separating its present state from its former states. [100; cf. 198]Bergson’s preferred conceptual metaphor for duration is that of a melody, the notes of which are played in succession, but which we nevertheless perceive “in one another”. Consider a melody with one of its notes lengthened beyond its proper value. Bergson says that it is not the note’s length “as length” that reveals our error, but the qualitative change wrought in the melody as a whole [100–1].For Bergson, is not the quantity as quantity of each note that is at issue, but the quality which their quantities exhibit [106]. The heterogeneity of pure duration is succession “without distinction”, a series of qualitative changes that “fuse” together or “melt” into one another [101]. Adding any homogeneity to this conception surreptitiously introduces the idea of space [104, 127–8].But time does seem to be quantifiable. However, when we say that the physicist “measures” time and records it with the independent variable t (or the composer with his pitches and rhythms), we just mean that he compares and counts simultaneities (as with velocity [117–9]). {See note D} This operation involves juxtaposition in space of symbolic representations, whereby Duration assumes the illusory form of an homogenous medium. The space traversed (homogenous and divisible) is confused for the act of traversing (heterogenous and indivisible and real only for consciousness) [107–111]. One can divide an object, but not an act [112]. (And this confusion must be the source of the Eleatic paradoxes, mathematics aside [113–4].)The metaphor here at issue involves conceptualizing some duration in time by analogy with extension in space, like the x-axis of a graph labeled “time”: we imagine the whole duration spread out before our mind’s eye, the beginning on one side, the end on the other, with various moments in between which correspond to various points on the line, all of which are viewable at once [103].That we can subsequently conceive of a reversible (and/or reorderable) duration — as if we could swap before and after much the same way we can reorient an object in space — is a clear signal that our conception of Duration is now tainted [101–2]. Because of course we know from conscious experience that — unlike space, which permits unfettered movement in multiple directions — the arrow of time flows ceaselessly in only one direction.Later, in Creative Evolution [CE], Bergson will appeal to the cinematograph: take a series of snapshots and view them in quick succession, and an illusion of motion results. But the motion of the film projector is added from without; the filmstrip itself only consists of static images.Similarly, the cinematographical mechanism (method) is the primary operation of our Intellect. It divides up time and motion into a series of spatial, static images … but is not in the least concerned with the interval (of time / motion) between them. The divisions are virtual, not real. [See CE, ch. IV, esp. 302–8, 329–38.]In order for science to confront time and motion, it must remove their essential elements (viz., duration and mobility). Discarding whatever is qualitative, it thereby discards whatever it is that endures. Erecting a symbolic representation for duration, it has falsified it. Because mechanics deals with things finished (objects) and not things ongoing (processes), all that remains of time is (the anticipation of) a simultaneity; of motion, (the anticipation of) an immobility [115-139; cf. 175–81, 190].Importantly, for later Bergson, it will become the exclusive role of philosophical Intuition to “put the motion back in” to the spatialized analyses afforded us by our Intellect [See e.g. IM 37, 51, et passim.]In summary: the “spatial” conception of time is false; it results from confusingintensities with magnitudes (qualities with quantities)effects with causes (sensations with stimuli)time with space (succession with simultaneity, duration with extension).This second stage built upon the first by establishing the difference between (“flowing”) time as quality and (“flown”) time as quantity [75]. An initial distinction between intensity and magnitude resolved into a family of distinctions: both are multiplicities, but the former is heterogenous, the latter homogenous; the former is qualitative (“fusing” or “interpenetrating”), the latter quantitative (“juxtaposed”); judgements of the former are subjective, but self-sufficient, and therefore absolute, while judgements of the latter are objective, so referred to externalities, and therefore relative; everything in the former category is allied with temporality (duration), in the latter with spatiality (extension). For Bergson, these categorical distinctions constitute genuine differences in kind.[math]\,\,[/math]TFW 3/3The final stage of Bergson’s argument brings these differences to bear directly on the question of freedom versus necessity.Given the choice between dynamism and mechanism, Bergson prefers the former. The dynamist starts with the idea of voluntary activity and gradually empties it to represent inertia. The mechanist does the opposite, starting with necessary laws in hope of eventually encompassing (apparently) free action by building up ever richer and more complex combinations. The mechanist thinks his laws are more real than the facts, whereas the dynamist thinks he perceives real facts which increasingly elude lawful representation [140–1].A priori Bergson takes the dynamist’s side. He reasons transcendentally. The dynamist’s knowledge of his own spontaneously free action is immediate and self-sufficiently given by consciousness. But to define inertia requires thinking something like “it cannot move or stop of its own accord” or “every body perseveres in a state of rest or motion so long as it is not acted upon by any force”. In both cases we have to refer back to the idea of activity. So the idea of spontaneity is “simpler” than that of inertia [141–2].A posteriori the mechanically-inclined determinist marshals definite facts of the matter in an attempt to assail the dynamist’s position. So determinism must be dealt with at length. Bergson distinguishes between two kinds of determinism: (1) physical (physiological) and (2) psychological. He contends that (1) is reducible to (2), and (2) is faulty [142].[math]\,[/math](1) physical determinism [143–55]Physical determinism is bound up with mechanism; it follows from any mechanical explanation of a phenomenon.A mechanical explanation for consciousness would require proof of an exact correspondence (“parallelism”) between psychic states and cerebral states. But there is no such proof [146]. And certainly we cannot establish it by reasoning a priori, but only through (conscious) observation. So we can safely assert only that it may (not should) be so [155].Bergson thinks it probably isn’t so. Our mechanical explanations of determinate systems require the persistence of some constant quantity (an idea later made rigorous by Noether). At issue here is the conservation of energy [145–55]. When we admit of no exception to this law, so that it applies universally, physical determinism results. But it can only be intelligibility applied to systems that have the possibility of returning to their starting position or state — an absurd demand for conscious duration, which flows forever forward [152–3].According to Bergson, the material point does not endure, but exists in a sort of eternal present, wherein past time is neither a gain nor a loss. (“[T]ime cannot bite into it” [152].) But perhaps for living beings — and certainly for conscious ones — past time is a real gain [153]. Duration seems to act like a cause, and past time exerts something like a force. (Bergson muses we might some day conceive of some “new kind” of energy, in addition or opposition to kinetic and potential, which is exclusive to the work done by consciousness when it freely acts [152].) So Bergson suspects the principle of conservation of energy does not apply to conscious states, and, as a result, neither does the kind of mechanical necessity implicated by physical determinism.Bergson argues that when the physical determinist maintains the universality of a conservation law, they have committed a psychological error, for they have reasoned about conscious duration by way of a faulty analogy with material extension. He claims that all forms of determinism ultimately depend on this erroneous hypothesis [142–3, 149, 155].[math]\,[/math](2) psychological determinism [155–64]So Bergson turns his attention to psychological determinism, which rests on an “associationist” conception of mind: an existing state of consciousness is supposed to be necessitated by the preceding states [155].Language compounds the error [131–4, 160–1], referring to general ideas with the same words in every case, fixing only the objective and impersonal aspects of experience. The associationist conceives of the self by analogy with ideas borrowed from (and only appropriate for) the external world, and thereby confuses their symbolic representation (which is an object) for the underlying reality (which is a process), the mechanical explanation of a fact (which is static) for the fact itself (which is dynamic). The associationist conception of self fails to distinguish between juxtaposition and fusion/interpenetration, so is defective [159–64].Bergson concedes an intimate relation between past and present states, but denies that this means one is the cause of the other [156]. He argues that a series of associations can only act as an explanation of the transition from one state to the next. But he thinks the self is not a mere aggregate or concatenation of conscious states. Consciousness has its own quality or “shade”, and each of its states is “tinged with the colouring of all the others” [163-4]. For Bergson, the only conception without defect is that of an heterogenous multiplicity, which by definition lacks the “geometrical character” of mechanical necessity [161]. (Bergson muses that a more attentive psychology may uncover phenomena that elude the known laws of the association of ideas, including effects that precede their causes! [158])So the relationship of “psychical force” to “the act which springs from it” is different in kind from the mathematical, mechanical relationship of “external causality” [219].[math]\,[/math]The Free Act [165–221]We can finally tie all these threads together. Bergson’s argument is that the determinist position is born of a psychological error: the conflation of time with space.Insofar as the object of our conception is extended in space, it is not temporal, but mechical and determined (or determinable). Reflex and routine do not depend on conscious duration, and are all the more mechanical for lack of it. So freedom is not absolute, but comes in degrees [165–6]. And our actions are most free when they arise from or connect back to the whole of our conscious duration, when “the whole soul” “vibrates” [167, 169].In short, we are free when our acts spring from our whole personality, when they express it, when they have that indefinable resemblance to it which one sometimes finds between the artist and his work. [172]It is as if there are two selves, one the “external projection” of the other: our fundamental self, composed of inner states constantly becoming and not amenable to measure; and the social and spatial representation of that self. When we try to provide an explanation of our freedom, we fail to attend to our whole and fundamental self, but only perceive ourself through “a kind of refraction in space” [183].Hence, our life unfolds in space rather than in time; we live for the external world rather than for ourselves; we speak rather than think; we “are acted” rather than act ourselves.To act freely is recover possession of oneself, and to get back into pure duration. [231–2]For Bergson, freedom can only be found in the undertaking of the act itself, and not in the analysis of the act after the fact. It is for this reason that, as living conscious beings, we can have immediate and self-sufficient knowledge of our own freedom, and yet lack the capacity to define our freedom [180–3]. Definitions and analyses are always ex post facto [156]. They demand a false equivalence between real duration and its spatial symbol, as if time were an homogenous medium. They can never rise to the challenge posed by freedom: “any positive definition of freedom will ensure the victory of determinism” [220, 230].We cannot define the free act by saying, once it is done, that it might have been left undone — for if two alternatives were equally possible, how have we made our choice (the act is not neutral, but must tend in one direction or the other)? and if only one was possible, why do we think ourselves free (there is no reason to leave the alternative open, as the self could not take it)? [174–83, 220]We cannot define the free act by saying that it could not have been foreseen, even if all the conditions were known in advance — for to conceive all the germane antecedents of an act is to be present at the very moment the act is being performed. Peter thinks he could forecast Paul’s future, if only he had enough information at his disposal. But in order to do this, he would need to have the same past, the same present, the same experience, the same feelings as Paul; Paul’s conscious states would have to be reproduced, and not simply imagined [186]. But then there would be no way to distinguish the two of them; they would be one and the same person, identical [188; cf. 207]. When dealing with conscious states we cannot vary their duration without altering their nature [196], so this leaves nothing to be foreseen, but only something to be done [183–98, 220].We cannot define the free act as an effect that is not necessarily determined by its cause — for either these words lose their meaning, or else we think that the same causes will not always produce the same effects. Holding “same antecedent, same consequent” assumes that the same inner cause can occur again for consciousness — but because psychic states are radically heterogenous to one another, and because the same moment can never recur, the “same” feeling, by the mere fact of being repeated, becomes a new feeling, and the relation of the psychic state to the act it performs is unique. So if the causal relation obtains for consciousness, it must be unlike the causality found in the external, material world [199–203, 220].Having thrice attempted and failed to define freedom, Bergson argues that our understanding of the principle of causality — as the “prefiguring” of a future phenomenon in present conditions — must involve two contradictory (mutually exclusive) conceptions of duration: one a dynamic idea of free effort, the other a static idea of necessary determination. The first conceives of all phenomena as enduring in the same way, the way that we do — so that the future exists in the present as an idea which is not necessarily realized (we might say “virtual but not actual”) [204–10]. The second conceives of duration as a uniquely living or conscious property, in which case material things out in the external world do not endure as we do, but admit a “mathematical pre-existence of their future in their present” [211–14]. Either conception, taken alone, “safeguards human freedom” [215].But when both are taken together the idea of freedom is destroyed. Thought and act contradict. Habits of common sense lead us this way. We take both senses at the same time. We equivocate between them in popular thought. Hence the popularity of the determinist’s challenge. But physical science manages to keep free effort and necessary determination apart; so too should psychological science [218–9].In the end, Bergson thinks that the question “Freedom or determination?” is loaded in favor of the latter. It presents a false equivalence. At bottom it’s just another way of asking, “Can space represent time?” [cf. 181: “Is time space?”]To which we answer: Yes, if you are dealing with time flown; No, if you speak of time flowing. Now, the free act takes place in time which is flowing and not in time which has already flown. Freedom is therefore a fact, and among the facts which we observe there is none clearer. [221][math]\qquad[/math]Bergson’s Later WorksBergson’s argument for freedom is confined to TFW. Later works take its conclusions as given.Matter and Memory [MM] is a sort of sequel to TFW. It’s better organized and far more rigorous. Bergson advances his theses of the body as a center of action and memory as the essential feature of duration. More memory means more indetermination in action means more freedom.The distinction between Intuition and Intellect is nascent in TFW and underdeveloped in MM, but it is brought to the fore in An Introduction to Metaphysics [IM].Creative Evolution [CE] is Bergson’s magnum opus. It offers an expansive treatment of these same ideas in Bergson’s best prose. The topic of Becoming is finally posed in full and explicit generality. He advances his thesis of élan vital, the force that compels living thinking beings to evolve and complexify, maximizing indetermination.Two Sources of Morality and Religion [TSMR] is a late work that extends Bergson’s onto-epistemological dualisms into the ethical, political, and theological domains. He applies the analogy of open and closed (thermodynamic) systems to societies.[math]\qquad[/math]RemarksI find Bergsonian philosophy interesting, but not compelling. {See note E}Throughout his works he refers to indetermination as a fact of the matter — but not so much Indeterminism as an ideological position. Regarding free will, Bergson is a kind of compatibalist, insofar as he does not deny that, say, the physicist can and ought to make successful predictions, because he thinks that such predictions of necessity ignore that portion of our reality which is truly free. So he does not find any problem in maintaining the practical utility of mechanistic determination alongside philosophical insights into human freedom. On the contrary: he thinks the philosopher’s role is to ensure that we can hold them both by keeping them separate. Separated, our Intuition assures us that we are free. So if this be a compatibalism, then it is weighted heavily in freedom’s favor.The Bergsonian conception of freedom will forever move the goalposts.[math]\qquad[/math]Notes[math]\,[/math]{A} Bergson’s frequent use of this tactic to differentiate and integrate concepts led Deleuze (in Bergsonism, ch. 1, “Intuition as Method”) to elevate it to the status of rule. I think he’s right about Bergson, but not Intuition — so much the worse for it, insofar as it’s methodical.[math]\,[/math]{B} This idea was deftly handled in the 1940s by S. S. Stevens, who described a hierarchy of measurement scales distinguished by degrees of homogeneity and uniqueness. It seems to me Bergson was concerned with what Stevens would later label ordinal scales on the one hand and interval scales on the other (occasionally nominal and ratio scales appear to get respectively lumped in). Note I wrote “degrees” above. For Bergson, the difference between intensity and magnitude is one of kind, not of degree. Whether Stevens’ work is fatal to Bergson’s project remains open.[math]\,[/math]{C} Bergson’s account of “spatial time” corresponds very closely to the account of the same subject by Lakoff and Johnson in their Philosophy in the Flesh (ch. 10, esp. pp. 139–41), in spite of the fact that, so far as I am aware, neither of them has ever addressed his work. The correspondence between these two accounts — and other metaphors to boot — is so close that I’m inclined to credit Bergson with being about a century ahead of his time![math]\,[/math]{D} One may operationally define time measurement by three necessary conditions:recognize two continuous processes with distinct states which in themselves define countable instancesrecognize two non-simultaneous events, each event comprising a local coincidence of two instants (one from each process)recognize (or assume the existence of) a transformation rule that translates the number of instants counted along one process into the number of instants counted along the other.Bergson’s contention seems to be that the quantity t can only convey instances counted and compared, but cannot capture the processual flux or Becoming of underlying reality that changes or flows or progresses from instant to instant through time.[math]\,[/math]{E} TFW is arguably the most important book in Bergson’s corpus, because it is the only one that works out in detail the categorical distinctions upon which all his subsequent works rely. But it is definitely not his most well-written book. It’s actually quite a frustrating read, to be honest. Conclusions often appear well in advance of their premises, and are sometimes stated and restated without much in the way of legitimate justification. And some of his arguments are simply preposterous. Is introspection sufficient to establish that freedom is not a fiction? Heterogeneity is some sort of fusing, interpenetrating, melting … but is there nothing more concrete you can tell us about it? Consciousness is a force that violates the conservation of energy? Effects precede their causes? One of his least compelling arguments runs as follows: consider the most stringent mechanist position, where consciousness is understood as an epiphenomenon that supervenes on material molecular movements. “But,” Bergson asks, “if molecular movement can create sensations out of a zero of consciousness, why should not consciousness in its turn create movement either out of a zero of kinetic and potential energy, or by making use of this energy in its own way?” [152] — to which the determinist ought immediately and obviously respond, “Because supervenience is a dependency relation that by definition moves in one direction but not the other, of course!”[math]\qquad[/math]TL;DR (really short)Freedom is dynamic (temporal), not static (spatial). Only conscious acts can be free.
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