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FAQs
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How does e-voting work in Estonia?
Those who have card readers at home (to be used with ID-cards) or mobile ID (used, among other things, for bank payments) will log in using their ID to a designated website, pick a candidate, click a few mouse clicks, and done.To ensure anonymity of voting, the hardware used for particular elections will then be publicly destroyed after the votes are counted (the electronic votes are normally taken some days before the physical votes, which sort of gives away some voting tendencies in advance). Still, it doesn’t stop the public from ever wondering each time elections come up about the anonymity and possible abuse of the system. Cases have been known where some heads of households would gather all ID cards of the family (especially old grandparents) and vote for whomever they chose.In recent elections, about 30 per cent of all active voters voted electronically. I know some people who never use this option for fear that records may remain. I personally fluctuate between voting electronically (“Meh, too lazy to go outside today”) and physically (“Elections day, come on family, time to do our citizen duty and have a nice walk!”).Update: just received my new ID card this week, and the envelope with the card reminds me when the next elections happen and encourages me not to waste my vote.
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How are cracked versions of software created and why are developers not able to prevent it?
Cracked versions of software are created with the use of debuggers. (A debugger is a special type of software that lets programmers deconstruct their software into its constituent parts for the purpose of finding bugs, and thus de-bugging. Additionally debuggers can be used for reverse-engineering, or to see what is inside the software, to learn its logic. The latter method is used mostly by malware researchers to study what malware (or computer viruses) do on-the-inside. But it can be also used by an attacker to "crack" (or bypass) legal software registration, or at times, to alter normal behavior of software, for instance by injecting a malicious code into it.)For the sake of this example, I will assume that the software that is being "cracked" was compiled into a native code, and is not a .NET or a JavaScript based application. (Otherwise it will be somewhat trivial to view its source code.) The compiled native code is a bit more tricky "beast" to study. (Native means that the code executes directly by the CPU, GPU, or other hardware.)So let's assume that the goal of an attacker is to bypass the registration logic in the software so that he or she doesn't have to pay for it. (Later for lolz, he or she may also post such "crack" on some shady online forum or on a torrent site so that others can "use" it too and give him or her their appreciation.)For simplicity let's assume that the original logic that was checking for the software registration was written in C++ and was something similar to the following code snippet:In this code sample "RegistrationName" and "RegistrationCode" are special strings of text that a legitimate software user will receive after paying for the license. (The name is usually that person's actual name or their email address, and the code is some string of unique/special characters that is tied to the name.)In the logic above, the function named "isRegistrationCodeGood()" will check if "RegistrationName" and "RegistrationCode" are accepted using some proprietary method. If they are, it will return true. Otherwise false. That outcode will dictate which branch (or scope) the execution will follow.So the logic above will either show that registration failed and quit:Or, if the registration code and name matched, it will save the registration details in persistent storage (such as the File System or System Registry) using the function named "rememberRegistrationParameters()" and then display the message thanking the user for registering:A "cracker" will obviously want to achieve the second result for any registration code that he or she enters. But they have a problem. They do not have the C++ source code, part of which I showed above. (I hope not!)So the only recourse for an attacker is to disassemble the binary code (that always ships with software in the form of .exe and .dll files on Windows, and mostly as Unix executables inside the .app packages on a Mac.) An attacker will then use a debugger to study the binary code and try to locate the registration logic that I singled out above.Next you can see the flowchart for a snippet of code that I showed in C++, presented via a low-level debugger. Or, as the code will be read in the binary form after compilation:(For readability I added comments on the right with the names of functions and variables. They will not be present in the code that an attacker could see.)(To understand what is shown above an attacker will have to have good knowledge of the Assembly language instructions for the native code.)I also need to point out that having a disassembly snippet like the one above is the final result for an attacker. The main difficulty for him or her is to locate it among millions and millions of other similar lines of code. And that is their main challenge. Not many people can do it and that is why software "cracking" is a special skill.So having found the code snippet above in the software binary file a "cracker" has two choices:1) Modify (or patch) the binary.2) Reverse-engineer the "isRegistrationCodeGood()" function and copy its logic to create what is known as a "KeyGen" or "Key Generator."Let's review both:The first choice is quite straightforward. Since an attacker got this far, he or she knows the Intel x64 Instruction Set quite well. So they simply change the conditional jump from "jnz short loc_7FF645671430" at the address 00007FF645671418 (circled in red in the screenshots) to unconditional jump, or "jmp short loc_7FF645671430". This will effectively remove any failed registration code entries and anything that the user types in will be accepted as a valid registration.Also note that this modification can be achieved by changing just one byte in the binary code from 0x75 to 0xEB:But this approach comes with a "price" of modifying the original binary file. For that an attacker needs to write his own "patcher" (or a small executable that will apply the modification that I described above.) The downside of this approach for an attacker is that patching an original executable file will break its digital signature, which may alert the end-user or the vendor. Additionally the "patcher" executable made by an attacker can be easily flagged and blocked by the end-user's antivirus software, or lead criminal investigators to the identity of the attacker.The second choice is a little bit more tricky. An attacker will have to study "isRegistrationCodeGood()" function and copy it into his own small program that will effectively duplicate the logic implemented in the original software and let him generate the registration code from any name, thus giving any unscrupulous user of that software an ability to register it without making a payment.Vendors of many major software products understand the potential impact of the second method and try to prevent it by requiring what is known as "authentication." This is basically a second step after registration, where the software submits registration name to the company's web server that returns a response back to the software of whether the code was legitimate or not. This is done by Microsoft when you purchase Windows (they call it "Activate Windows") and also by signNow, and many other companies. This second step may be done behind-the-scenes on the background while the software is running, and will usually lead to cancellation of prior registration if it was obtained illegally.So now you know how software is "cracked".Let me answer why it is not possible to prevent it. It all boils down to the fact that any software code needs to be read either by CPU (in case of a binary native code) or by an interpreter or a JIT compiler (in case of JavaScript or .NET code.) This means that if there's a way to read/interpret something, no matter how complex or convoluted it is, an attacker with enough knowledge and persistence will be able to read it as well, and thus break it.There is an argument though that cloud-based software is more secure, which is true, since its (binary) code remains on the server and end-users do not have direct access to it. And even though cloud-based software is definitely the future, it has some major drawbacks that will never allow it to fully replace your conventional software. To name just a few:Not everyone has an internet connection, or is willing to upload their data online. Additionally someone’s internet connection can be very expensive or too slow to make the software run very laggy.Then there’s a question of distributed computing. For instance, Blizzard Entertainment would never make “World of Warcraft” to fully run on their servers due to immense computational resources needed to render every single scene for every player they have. Thus it is in their best interest to let each individual user’s computer to do the rendering instead.As a software developer myself, I obviously don't like when people steal software licenses. But I have to accept it and live with it. The good news is that there are not that many people who are willing to go extra mile and search for a cracked version of software. The main problem for those who do, is that by downloading a patched executable, or an attacker's KeyGen or a Patcher, they are effectively "trusting" him or her not to put anything "nasty" into it that was not "advertised on the package" (stuff like trojans, malware, or keyloggers.) So the question for those people becomes -- is it worth the cost of the software license to potentially infect your system with a nasty virus?On the other side of the equation, some developers react very negatively to any attempts to steal their software licenses. (I was there too.) They try to implement all kinds of countermeasures -- anything from tricking reverse-engineers, to adding booby traps in the code that may do something nasty if the code detects that it is being debugged, to obfuscating or scrambling the code, to enforcing all kinds of convoluted DRM schemes, to blocking users from certain countries. I personally try to stay away from all of those measures. And here's why:A) Any kind of anti-reverse-engineering tactics could be bypassed by an attacker with enough persistence. So why bother and waste my time when I can invest that time into adding something useful to my software that will make it more productive for legitimate users?B) Some code packers could create false positives with antivirus software, which is obviously not good for marketing of that software. It also creates unnecessary complexity for the developer to debug the software.C) Adding booby traps in the code can also “misfire” on your legitimate users, which will really infuriate them and can even lead to lawsuits.D) Any DRM scheme will probably catch some 100 illegal users and greatly inconvenience 10,000 legitimate ones. So why do it to your good customers?E) Our statistics show that about 75% of all illegal licenses come from China, Russia, Brazil, to name the worst offenders. (I also understand that the reason may be much lower incomes that people have in those countries.) The main issue for us though was the fact that if we enforce our DRM or add some strong registration authentication, many people that wanted to bypass our registration would simply use a stolen credit card number. And we had no control over it. Our system will use it to send them a legitimate license only to have the payment bounce in weeks time. As a result we would lose the money that were paid for the license, plus the credit card company will impose an additional chargeback fee to our account, which may range from $0.25 to $20 per bad purchase on top of the license cost.F) As was pointed out in the comments, some companies may actually benefit from allowing pirated copies of their software. Microsoft for instance gets a lot of free publicity from people using their Windows OS, the same goes for signNow with their Photoshop. That is a good point that I agree with.So my philosophy is now this -- if someone wants to go extra mile and steal our software, go for it! They went this far to do it anyway, so they probably have a good reason. On the positive side there are so many other customers that appreciate the work that goes into creating software that greatly outnumber those that don’t.PS. Thank you for all your feedback! It makes me feel good that the knowledge I shared is useful to others.
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How stealthy is a Arleigh Burke destroyer?
Thanks for the ATA! I served on 2 Burke Class DDGs.Burke Class DDGs employ several RCS or ‘Radar Cross Section’ reduction methods.First and foremost is that the hull and more especially the superstructure employ shaping techniques to present angles that will bounce or scatter radar return.Placement of equipment on deck is limited or able to be hidden/enclosed. The mast is angled, enclosed and made of aluminum. The 5 inch gun has been modified on later ships to include a reduced RCS turret.Equipment that cannot be placed elsewhere or hidden has special covers made of radar absorbent material. Similarly parts of the superstructure and any infrastructure that cannot be angled use RAM tile. Any of the RAM areas as well as identified hot spots are coated with special RAM paint. For instance the exhaust pipes are painted with a paint similar to what was used on the F117. Later ships removed the exhaust pipes altogether. Collectively these systems are called PCMS or Passive Counter Measures System.The result is a RCS that is about 70 percent smaller than the ships actual size depending up the platform trying to detect it.Aside from RCS reduction an area that is as important is ‘Emissions Control’. You can hide from radar completely and it will not help a bit if your electronic signature gives you away. The Burke Class excels at controlling emissions. Phased Array SPY-1 radars have a virtuous ability to control emissions by being able to digitally dial its echo, meaning the radar doesnt just use max energy all the time like an easily visible spotlight shooting up into a night sky. Burke can turn its radar off altogether and rely on its own electronic sniffing ECM sensors or through Cooperative Engagement and Tactical Databanks use other platforms sensors to get a picture. For example an E-2D Hawkeye is airborne, it can link with the Burke and now the Burke can see what it sees. Burke can even launch weapons using another platforms sensor picture.
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Is it true that the United States military is the most powerful military in the world?
Very much true.The US military has massive power projection, more than any country in the history of man. The US has 11 (CATOBAR/STOBAR) Aircraft Carriers, while the next country has 1 which is, China, Russia, India, UK, and France. Also, the US Carriers are not just regular carriers, they are known as Super Carriers. Which is a term coined by the public to say that these carriers are so large that they exceed the definition of an Aircraft Carrier. Also, the US carriers were designed in the 70’s and countries are now just starting to make designs that could compete with the American Carriers. However, the US just redesigned the carrier and is coming out with the new Gerald R. Ford Class Carrier, which is supposed to be years possibly decades ahead of any other countries design. If you include Helicopter Carriers, and Amphibious Assault ships, that number jumps up to 20, soon to be 22. Then the next highest is tied between Japan and France with 4. My favorite part about the US having so many Aicraft Carriers is that if we divided them up between the major oceans, we could have 4 in each ocean… Crazy. The US carriers are also nuclear powered, they are the only carriers to be nuclear powered besides the French R91 Charles de Gaulle.Note the types of planes on the US Carriers. If you look at the USS Gerald R. Ford, it is fielding 5 different aircraft. 4 planes and 1 helicopter. We will look at the planes. Woden note, the USN has the 2nd largest Air Force in the world, right behind the USAF.First plane- McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet/Super Hornet: The plane is one of the most decorated planes, with thousands of successful missions, while requiring 3x less maintenance and failures than its counterparts. The plane has electronic warfare capabilities, air to air, and air to ground capabilities. Also, has spy and early warning capabilities. It was one of the first aircraft to heavily use multifunction displays, which at the switch of a button allow a pilot to perform either fighter or attack roles or both. The airframe is complex yet so simple, that a 4 man team can remove and install a new F404 engine in 40 minutes. Was also one of the very first 4th generation fighter on an aircraft carrier.Second plane- Northrop Grumman X-47B: This guy will be the very first and only Carrier based Drone. Northrop Grumman intends to develop the prototype X-47B into a battlefield-ready aircraft, the Unmanned Carrier-Launched Airborne Surveillance and Strike (UCLASS) system, which will enter service in the 2020s. So it’ll have strike options and surveillance capabilities.Third plane- Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye: Many countries have AWAC systems or Airborne early warning and control. But only the United States have a Carrier based AWAC system. With the creation of this system, carriers that are hundreds of miles away from the nearest AWAC system, this plane gives the ability for a carrier strike group to potentially detect fifth-generation fighters like the Russian Sukhoi Su-57 and the Chinese Chengdu J-20 and Shenyang J-31 farther out. Also, gives the ability to guide fleet weapons, such as AIM-120 AMRAAM and SM-6 missiles, onto targets beyond a launch platform's detection range or capabilities.Fourth plane- Lockheed Martin F-35C Lightning II: This plane is the first and only carrier based 5th Generation Stealth fighter. The plane is meant as an air superiority fighter and a plane capable of ground support. It also has a very low, almost undetectable, cross section and radar signature. Besides radar stealth measures, the F-35 incorporates infrared signature and visual signature reduction measures. With the addition of a 5th generation stealth fighter, this gives the US military and Navy, the opportunity to do more damage and to have true air superiority over all other aircraft carrier based planes and land based planes. The US, in the event of a war, can now bring 5th gen fighters to the battle without the need of the Air Force against other 4th gen fighters, or possibly the few Chinese or Russian 5th gen fighters.Furthermore, the US have some of the best destroyers on the planet. With the highly acclaimed Arleigh-Burke Class Destroyer, and the brand new, low production Zumwalt Class Destroyer. The US has the most destroyers in the world with about double the next country, with another 4 undergoing sea trials and we are currently building 5 more and have awarded contracts for 5 more. By 2024 the US is expected to have 79 destroyers in service.Zumwalt Destroyer- The Zumwalt class warships are the largest destroyer ever built. The USS Zumwalt has unusual hull design optimized for wave piercing. There is a composite deckhouse. Angular shape minimizes its radar signature. The ship has hidden radar and sensors. The despite its size the USS Zumwalt has a radar signature of a fishing boat. Also it has reduced sound and infrared signature what makes this ship harder to detect. The ship is the First american surface warship to integrate electronic propulsion, it generates enough power to light up a small city. Sound levels of the Zumwalt are comparable with Los Angeles class submarines.Arleigh-Burke Destroyer- These guided missile destroyers entered service with the US Navy in 1991 were the first large US Navy vessel designed to incorporate stealth shaping techniques to reduce radar cross-section. Also these are one of the biggest destroyers in the world that incorporate highly advanced weaponry and systems. Hull profile of the Arleight Burke class signNowly improves seakeeping, permitting high speeds to be maintained in difficult sea states. The AN/SPY-1D phased array radar incorporates signNow advances in the detection capabilities of the AEGIS weapons system, particularly in its resistance to enemy electronic countermeasures. Missile are stored in vertical launch systems, that can also house smaller Evolved Sea Sparrow (ESSM) missiles, Tomahawk land attack cruise missiles, ASROC anti-submarine missiles. For point defense the ships are equipped with two Phalanx Close-In Weapon Systems (CIWS). Also there are 324 mm launchers for Mk.46 or Mk.50 torpedoes.Daily dose of freedom right here.Obviously, we can’t forget about the immaculate US submarine fleet. The US has some of the most advanced and quietest submarines. All of them use nuclear propulsion for extended range and stealth capabilities. The US has the…Ohio class (18 in commission) – 14 ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs), 4 guided missile submarines (SSGNs)- The U.S. Ohio-class submarines, of which 14 are Trident II SSBN, each capable of carrying 24 SLBMs. The first four which were all equipped with the older Trident I missiles have been converted to SSGN's each capable of carrying 154 Tomahawk guided missiles and have been further equipped to support Special OperationsSeawolf class (3 in commission) – attack submarines- The Seawolf class boats were intended to seek and destroy the latest Soviet ballistic missile submarines, such as the Typhoon class and attack submarines such as the Akula class. Seawolf class submarines are arguably the quietest submarines in the world ever constructed. It is exceptionally quiet even at high speeds. Most submarines need to keep their speed down to as little as 5 knots to avoid detection by passive sonar arrays, while the Seawolf class are credited with being able to cruise at 20 kots and still be impossible to locate. A Seawolf at 25 knots makes less noise than an older Los Angeles class submarine tied up alongside the pier. And these came out in 1989.Virginia class (11 in commission, 5 under construction, 2 on order) – fast attack submarines- The Virginia class submarines incorporate newly designed anechoic coating, isolated deck structures and new design of propulsor to achieve low acoustic signature. It is claimed that noise level of the Virginia is equal to that of the Seawolf class. The Virginia class submarines are fitted with 12 vertical launch system (VLS) tubes. These are used to launched Tomahawk land attack cruise missiles with a range of 1 700 km. Also there are four 533-mm torpedo tubes. These are used to fire a total of 26 Mk.48 heavyweight torpedoes and Sub-Harpoon anti-ship missiles. It is the first US submarine to employ a built-in Navy SEAL staging area allowing a team of 9 men to enter and leave the submarine.(Improved) Los Angeles class (34 in commission, 2 in reserve) – attack submarines- The Improved submarines are much quieter. It is described that improved Los Angeles class boats are 7 times quieter than the original Los Angeles class boats. The class features a very potent weapon array, including Mk.48 torpedoes, Sub-Harpoon anti-ship missiles and Tomahawk land attack cruise missiles. Tomahawk missiles can be launched from torpedo tubes of from dedicated vertical launching systems. These boats can operate under ice where the Russian ballistic missile submarines tend to hide.Surfacing of a US Submarine.Let’s move onto the air. While the USN has a quite capable Air Force. But that is dwarfed by the sheer magnitude and strength of the United States Air Force. The Air Force articulates its core missions as air and space superiority, global integrated ISR, rapid global mobility, global strike, and command and control. The USAF flys a multitude of different planes and helicopters. The USAF is the largest Air Force in the world, here is the list of what America flys. Most of these are at the cutting edge of innovation, with two of them being 5th generation stealth fighters. That’s really really good because no other country has an active 5th gen while the US has 2. The USAF also has the largest bomber, tanker, fighter, and transport fleets in the world. The USAF has so many staging areas around the world, that the US can have bombers or any other planes on station, anywhere around the world in a matter of hours.Attack: A-10, AC-130, MQ-1, MQ-9Bomber: B-1B, B-2, B-52HElectronic warfare: E-3, E-8, EC-130Fighter: F-15C, F-15E, F-16, F-22 (5th gen), F-35A (5th gen)Helicopter: HH-60, UH-1NReconnaissance: MC-12, RC-135, RQ-4, RQ-170, U-2, U-28Trainer: T-1, T-6, T-38, T-41, T-51, T-53, TG-16Transport: C-5, C-12, C-17, C-21, C-32, C-37, C-130, C-40, CV-22, VC-25Tanker: KC-10, KC-135Let’s look at the two of my favorite ones and the most technologically advanced planes in the world.F-22 RaptorThe F-22 Raptor air superiority fighter is almost invisible to radars. This aircraft carries a powerful array of weaponry. It is the most advanced and most expensive production fighter aircraft to date. Many of sensors and avionics of this plane remain classified. Engines of the raptor allow the aircraft to supercruise over long ranges, while thrust-vectoring nozzles, combined with a triplex fly-by-wire flight control system, make it exceptionally maneuverable. The highly integrated avionics systems also include a data-link, inertial navigation system with embedded GPS for high-accuracy navigation, and advanced electronic warfare, warning and countermeasures systems. Two central computers manage the automatic switching of the sensors between completely passive and wholly active operation, according to the tactical situation. Artificial intelligence algorithms fuse data from the sensors and present only relevant information to the pilot to reduce workload while at the same time improving tactical awareness. The datalink allows tactical information to be shared with other F-22s. The tech is so special that other countries, not even NATO allies are given the chance to procure the plane.B-2 SpiritThe B-2A Spirit is the silver bullet of US policy, reserved for use against targets of the highest priority. The B-2's stealth characteristics enable the undetected penetration of sophisticated anti-aircraft defenses and to attack even heavily defended targets. This stealth comes from a combination of reduced acoustic, infrared, visual and radar signatures (multi-spectral camouflage) to evade the various detection systems that could be used to detect and be used to direct attacks against an aircraft. Composites are extensively used to provide a radar-absorbent honeycomb structure; the bomber has a minimal IR signature, does not contrail and uses its shielded APQ-181 radar only momentarily to identify a target just before attacking. The onboard DMS is capable of automatically assessing the detection capabilities of identified threats and indicated targets. The DMS will be upgraded by 2021 to detect radar emissions from air defenses to allow changes to the auto-router's mission planning information while in-flight so it can receive new data quickly to plan a route that minimizes exposure to dangers. Also, most of the B-2s are stationed in Missouri, and they are capable of bombing any target in the world despite being in the heart of America.Now for the US ARMYThe US army it self is massive in numbers, coming in at 1.01 million personnel, it self is one of the biggest standing armies in the world, and that's just one branch of the US military. Also, in the US military, it is the largest branch out of them all surpassing any other branch by almost 600,000 personnel. They provide the bulk of security for the US's foreign interests. The mission of the U.S. Army is to fight and win our Nation's wars, by providing prompt, sustained, land dominance, across the full range of military operations and the spectrum of conflict, in support of combatant commanders. Which is mainly air domination and land domination. They mainly engage is conventional warfare, and asymmetrical warfare. The US Army's main responsibilities is preserving the peace and security and providing for the defense of the United States, the Commonwealths and possessions and any areas occupied by the United States, Supporting the national policies, Implementing the national objectives, Overcoming any nations responsible for aggressive acts that imperil the peace and security of the United States. The US Army is also home to some of the most dangerous, prestigious and hardest working special forces teams in the world such as the frontline special force, the Rangers, we also have the green berets and the iconic 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta (Airborne) also known as Delta Force. The US army is thought to be one of the most battle tested and battle proven militaries in the world. With the mobility of the USAF an army QRF can be anywhere on earth in less than 24 hours. The US ARMY uses the M1A2 Abrams tank. One of the most badass, heaviest, fastest, and battle hardened tanks in the world.This tank has incredible technology and armor. Also it has seen combat. It is one of the most feared MBTs. The M1A2 offers signNow protection against all well-known anti-tank weapons. This main battle tank uses advanced armor, reinforced with depleted uranium layers. The M1A2 has signNow level of protection against all known anti-tank weapons. It can also employ counter-IED equipment. The tank is armed with the same 120-mm M256 smoothbore gun as its predecessor. Range of effective fire is in excess of 4 km. This main battle tank is powered by a Honeywell AGT1500 gas turbine engine, developing 1 500 hp. The tank is one of the fastest in the world, clocking in (with no governor) at 60 mph while being THE heaviest tank in the world. As of April of 2018, the US has no combat losses with the Abrams, the Abrams has only been lost due to friendly fire, never to enemy fire.I don’t think I need to explain the marines. Just know that they use the same tech as the Army (with some exceptions) but they are also the main invasion force for the US. And they are badass.The US military signNow is massive with the Aircraft carriers and the 700+ military bases around the world. The US is truly the most powerful military in the world. The fact that they can have a men anywhere in the world in less than 24 hours and being able to bomb any place on earth, just proves how powerful the US military is.
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What are the various types of alcoholic beverages in the world?
The highest-level categories are fermented beverages like beer and wine, and distilled beverages, like liquor. The former are made by allowing yeasts (a type of fungus) to consume sugars and excrete alcohols. There is a theoretical upper bound to the concentration of alcohol that can be produced by this process, since the yeast cannot survive in alcohol and will eventually drown in its own excrement. (Lovely image, right?) In order to produce beverages above, let's say, 15% alcohol by volume, it's necessary to distill some of the water off of a fermented beverage.Of course, after the actual alcohol has been produced, it's possible to mix things together and add additional flavorings. There is a hybrid category of fortified wines, for instance, which are blends of fermented and distilled beverages. Gin is made by producing a distilled liquor, somewhat similar to vodka, and then infusing it with herbs. Liqueurs are made by adding flavorings and sugars to distilled liquors.Fermented BeveragesIn order to carry out fermentation, we need to feed some kind of carbohydrates to the yeasts. The choice of carbohydrates determines a great deal about the final product.Beers are produced by fermenting grains -- usually barley, but also wheat, corn, millet, or rice. (The Japanese drink sake, while usually described as "rice wine," is essentially a beer made from rice instead of barley.)Pictured: Hops, a flower added to beer before fermentation to impart a bitter taste.For more on beer:What are the characteristics of the major types of beer?How many different types of craft beer brands exist in the US?What's a simple, one-sentence breakdown of the difference between an ale and a lager?Wines are produced by fermenting fruits; generally, the word "wine" alone means "grape wine," while other wines will be referred to by the name of the fruit -- e.g. "plum wine," "blackberry wine," etc. [1] Grape wines come in two main types, red or white, depending on the type of grape used and whether the skin is left on. Given that more has been written about these kinds of wines than all other beverages put together, I'll refrain from going into detail about this subject.Pictured: Amarone, a wine made from raisins.For more on (traditional, grape-based) wines:What are the differences between different types of red wines?What is the best way for a beginner to learn the basics about wine?These are the two most common types of fermented beverages, but there are other types of high-carbohydrate foods that can be fermented. Mead is made by fermenting honey. It was very popular in Western Europe hundreds of years ago, then fell from favor for a long time, but is currently enjoying something of a resurgence. Milk, too, can be fermented, although there is to my knowledge no common English word for this category of beverage; it's generally called something like koumiss in the local languages where it's drunk. Some tree and plant saps can be fermented as well; again, I don't know of an English word for the category, but pulque is the most prominent example.Pictured: Pulque, a drink made by fermenting the sap of the Maguey agave plant.Distilled beveragesWe can produce higher-alcohol beverages by distilling fermented alcohols. (Distillation is the chemical name for any process that separates particular chemicals out of a mixture. In this case, we're removing water from a mixture of alcohol and water, resulting in a higher alcohol concentration). There are different kinds of distillation processes, and they do matter, but I'll skip over them for the most part here.Usually, you do not just drink these right after distilling them -- they'll often be aged in casks made of specific types of wood (where they pull flavor from the wood), or have additional flavors added to them after fermentation. [2]One example is brandy (short for brandywine, meaning "burnt wine"), which is made by distilling wine. Again, there are all kinds of fruits, so there are all kinds of brandies; the word "brandy" alone usually refers to brandies made from (grape) wine which have been aged in casks. Cognac and Armagnac are two types of this sort of brandy. Unaged brandies may be known as eau de vie ( "water of life" in French), generally together with the name of the fruit, e.g. "eau de vie de framboise" would be an unaged raspberry brandy. Other notable brandies include Pisco, an unaged grape brandy from South America; Calvados, a French apple brandy aged in oak casks; Kirschwasser, an unaged brandy made from cherries without the pits removed; and Grappa, an unaged brandy from Italy made from grapes with their skins and stems left intact.Pictured: Poire William, a pear-based eau de vie. (The pear inside the bottle is primarily decorative.)Whiskey, (or sometimes whisky), on the other hand, is essentially distilled beer, though the sort of "beer" you distill to make whiskey is a bit different from the sort of beer you would normally drink; for instance, it doesn't contain hops (a flower added to beer to give it a bitter flavor). Common types of cask-aged whiskey include Scotch (malted barley), Irish whiskey (malted barley or grain), Bourbon (corn), Rye (rye), Canadian whiskey (rye), and Tennessee whiskey (corn). [3] Of course, these styles come down to more than just the grains used. For instance, Islay Scotches -- my favorite of all alcoholic beverages -- use malt dried over a peat fire, which gives them a unique smoky taste that's not present in other whiskies, and Tennessee whiskies (of which there are exactly two, namely Jack Daniel's and George Dickel) are put through a charcoal mellowing process. The most common unaged whiskey is Corn Whiskey. I personally do not recommend drinking this.Pictured: A peat stack, used to dry and flavor the malt used in the type of Scotch whisky made on Islay and the outer Hebrides.Let's pause for a brief tangent about styles of whiskey. Scotch will tend to have the most complex flavors and less sweetness than other styles of whisky. There are different regions of Scotland that make different styles of whiskey. Islay (and the rest of the Hebrides), as mentioned above, make smoky-tasting malts. Highlands and Speysides seem to be a bit more beginner-friendly.For the longest time, rye was pretty much the official whiskey of America. George Washington made his own at Mount Vernon. It's sharper and less cloying than bourbon. The Manhattan cocktail (whiskey, red vermouth, and bitters) would have originally been made with rye. Prohibition changed all that by giving America a good sock right in the sophistication. Coming out, we preferred sweeter and less subtle drinks like bourbon and Tennessee whiskey, which pretty much took rye out of the running. Fortunately, it has been seeing something of a resurgence recently.Pictured: Rye.More on whiskey:What are the differences between scotch, bourbon, and Tennessee whiskies?What is the difference between whisky and whiskey?Rum is a liquor distilled from fermented sugarcane byproducts. [4] The word "rum" alone usually refers to liquors made from molasses, which is a by-product of extracting sugar from sugarcane. It can be cask-aged for varying amounts of time, resulting in light rums and dark rums. Some types of rum, like Cachaça and Rhum Agricole, are instead made from sugarcane juice. (Some people might just use "rum" to denote molasses liquors, and put the sugarcane juice liquors in their own category.)Pictured: A Caipirinha -- the national drink of Brazil -- which is a cocktail of Cachaça, sugar, and lime. A stick of sugarcane (for decoration or stirring) is visible in the glass.Tequila is a liquor distilled from fermented agave hearts. (Agave is a plant in the same family as the asparagus and the yucca.) Like rum it can be aged for different amounts of time. The tequila you normally see is made from the blue agave plant; Mezcal is a tequila made from the Maguey agave.Pictured: A blue agave plant.Neutral spirits are a bit different. This term refers to alcohol produced by any method in such a way that any residual flavor is removed and the result is simply pure alcohol and water, or as close as can be efficiently achieved without undue burden. Neutral spirits can be used as the base for a liqueur. Some cheap gins and vodkas are also made from neutral spirits.Vodka is traditionally made by distilling fermented potato juice. However, due to its neutral flavor, the term is also used nowadays for neutral spirits or similar products. Gin is made by adding juniper berries to neutral spirits, running some kind of "re-distillation" process that I don't even pretend to understand, and then infusing with various herbs and botanicals.Chinese liquor, or "baijiu" in Chinese, technically belongs to the whiskey family, as it's made by distilling fermented sorghum. (Sorghum is a type of grain grown in China.) Most westerners are not used to the flavor of sorghum, and when I've taken my white friends to Chinese bars in SF they often aren't able to stomach these, but I've developed a taste for at least some of them. This is a very wide category, but I don't know anywhere near enough about it to do it justice. The ones I've tried are Erguotou, an inexpensive, clear liquor, and Maotai, which is what they serve the President of the United States at formal dinners when he visits China. [5]Pictured: Maotai, a sorghum-based liquor of the "sauce-fragrance" type.Hybrids: Liqueurs, fortified wines, etc.The beverages above get their flavor primarily or even exclusively from the process by which the alcohol was produced. When they do have additional flavors, they're usually in some sense a byproduct of the process used. Hops are added to beer prior to fermentation, for instance; similarly, while casked liquors do pull a considerable amount of flavor from their casks, the aging is actually required for other reasons as well.There are many classes of alcoholic beverages, however, which do not get their signature flavors primarily from the process which produces the alcohol, or which contain several types of alcohol made by different processes giving a composite flavor. This is a very broad category and spans some of the best and worst kinds of beverage.The oldest beverage of this type is probably fortified wine, which is made by mixing wine and liquor, possibly with additional herbs or spices infused. Originally the liquor was added as a preservative, but the style has now evolved to the point that certain fortified wines are among the most valuable wines out there. There are a few important types. Desert wines like Port, Sherry, Madeira, and Marsala are barrel aged and fortified with brandy. Vermouth is fortified with neutral grape spirits and infused with herbs and botanicals. (Sugar is often added as well.) Vermouth is extremely important in cocktails, being integral to the Martini and the Manhattan, which are two of the oldest and best cocktails.Another important class of beverage are flavored spirits. These are made by infusing various flavors into neutral spirits (or, rarely, into other liquors). Unlike liqueurs, flavored spirits do not have added sugar or juices. Gin is probably the most important; it's made by adding juniper berries and other herbs and botanicals to neutral spirits. (Gin is short for Genever / Jennifer / Guinevere, a name derived from the Juniper plant.) Absinthe, too, was among the most important flavored spirits in its heyday, when it was roughly as popular in Paris as Coca-Cola in the U.S. today. It's made by infusing neutral spirits with anise and a number of herbals and botanicals, including grand wormwood (artemisia absinthium) from which it takes its name. Absinthe was for a long time banned in much of the world after a campaign that associated what were in retrospect effects of severe alcoholism with the wormwood in absinthe. It's now known that drinking absinthe is perfectly safe, and the drink is once again available on store shelves and in bars. [6] Pictured: a grand wormwood plant, used in flavoring absinthe.Liqueurs are made by adding flavorings and sugar to neutral spirit base (or, rarely, another liquor.) This is an absolutely huge category in and of itself, comprising both the relatively obvious choices like creme de menthe (mint), creme de cacao (chocolate), coffee liqueur, amaretto (bitter almond and/or apricot kernel liqueur), raspberry liqueur, and so forth, as well as aperitif and digestif bitters such as Italian amaros, Campari , Cynar, Fernet, and Suze.Pictured: Suze, a type of bitters predominantly featuring the flavor of the gentian flower. My favorite liqueur of all.SummaryAs mentioned in Naomi P Saphra's answer , this is not a clear-cut question since there are piles of categories and subcategories, and it's not clear where to draw the lines. As a consolation prize, here's a picture of part of the tree discussed above which may also function as a handy reference.Fermented beveragesBeerAlesPale alesBrown alesBelgian-style alesLagersMalt beveragesSakeWineGrape winesRed wineWhite wineRose wineSparkling wineStraw wineIce wineNon-grape winesApple ciderPerryCountry winesMeadFermented milk beveragesFermented sap beveragesDistilled beveragesBrandyCasked grape brandiesEaux de vieWhiskeyCasked whiskeyScotchSingle-malt ScotchIslayHighlandSpeysideCampbelltownBlended ScotchIrish whiskyBourbonRyeTennessee whiskeyCanadian whiskyUncasked whiskeyCorn whiskeyUncasked ryeBaijiuLight fragranceHeavy fragranceSauce fragranceRumMolasses rumsSugarcane juice rumsTequilaBlue agave tequilaMezcalNeutral Spirits(Some) vodkaHybridsLiqueursCordialsFruit liqueursNut liqueursAmarettoCoffee liqueursAnise-flavored liqueursAnisetteGallianoSambucaDrambuieAperitif / Digestif Bitters (may overlap other categories)Amer PiconAvernaAmaro MontenegroCampariCynarFernet BrancaSuzeUnicumHerbal liqueursBénédictineChartreuseJägermeisterKümmelMetaxaStregaFortified winesDesert WinesPortSherryMadeiraMarsalaVermouth and friendsRed vermouthWhite vermouthLilletPunt e mes"Bum wines"Flavored spiritsGin and Genever"X-flavored Y"Coconut rumFlavored vodkasAnise-flavored liquorsAbsintheArakOuzoAkvavitResinated wines[1] "Beer" and "wine" have technical meanings, but they're not always used in this sense. In particular, since beer tends to have lower alcohol content than wine (say ~6% versus ~10% by volume), sometimes wines with low alcohol contents will be referred to as beers or vice-versa. For instance, barley wine is a type of beer with exceptionally high alcohol content, while apple cider is often considered like a beer despite essentially being a sparkling wine.[2] You can also age liquors for a short time in non-reactive containers, say glass or steel, in which case they go through some chemical reactions but don't interact with the container. I'll call these "unaged" here for simplicity, despite the fact that it's not strictly true.[3] Note that many of these whiskeys are made from more than one grain, e.g. bourbon may be half corn and half wheat. When I've indicated a grain I've just indicated the predominant one.[4] Sugarcane is actually a type of non-grain-bearing grass, not a fruit, explaining why rum doesn't count a type of brandy or whiskey.[5] If, like most of Quora, you're in the San Francisco Bay area, go to Red's Place at Jackson and Grant to try this stuff, then go a block over to Kearny where there's a Chinese liquor store to buy it. I don't know of any other U.S. importers (UPDATE: There's also one in Chicago's Chinatown called China Palace Liquor City); if you do, add a mention in the comments.[6] The kind of wormwood used to make absinthe was correctly known to contain the extremely potent neurotoxin thujone in its essential oil. However, the amount of thujone present in absinthe is so low that you'd die of alcohol poisioning long before you could drink enough absinthe to have any effect from it. As a result of the anti-wormwood campaign of a century ago, there's been a persistent misconception that thujone can be used as a recreational drug, which is false -- it doesn't cause hallucinations or any other desirable effects; it's just a poison. (Note, by the way, that many essential oils are similarly toxic, and should be treated with extreme care. Several people have permanently damaged their health or died by drinking concentrated wintergreen oil out of the bottle while making candy. A single ounce of it contains the equivalent of 200 aspirin pills.) I am not a physician and this does not constitute medical advice of any kind.
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How is the ICSE essay checked?
1.Teachers try to find out the key points in the essay and accordingly marks are allotted.2.Write the essay on the subject matter which the question is asking for instead of deviating from it.3. Do not repeat the same sentences again and again because it may create a wrong impression on the person who is checking your paper.4. Write quotation and highlight them.5. Provide examples if required.6. Teachers look for content and valid point suiting the essay so write the essay accordingly instead of writing 6-7 pages.7. Make less grammatical errors.8. First sketch the point of the essay and then prepare the essay.9. Do not try to copy essay from essay books.10. Write essay which is simple and understandable.11.Make your essay distinct from other candidates.12. Relate it with the current scenario, if required.13. Try to keep yourself aware of current affairs as it can majorly help you in english language exam.14. Practice essay from last ten years it will help you a lot and who knows you may get similar essay to write.15. Read good book of various genre this will help you in increasing your knowledge on various topics and in turn write a good essay for example: biography of some good personality.16. Give mock test which are conducted and get it checked through experts who have vast experience of teaching as they are well aware of marking scheme.17. Practice all type of essay covered in the syllabus so it will help you in the better selection of essay to be attempted.18. You can also prepare your own essay question seeing the current affairs and write on it and get it checked by teachers.19. Revise your essay once you complete your language paper.Suggestions are always welcomed so some more valuable points can be added.Study smart.Good luck.
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What are the valid facts in the NGT v/s Art of Living case?
This is height of hypocracy and believing themselves to be above law .What is the difference between ShriShri Ravishankar from the so called DABANGS of Bihar and UP who flout law openly and brazenly.Please do not start with comparison proving difference between the two.He is a renowned man with million of followers this hypocracy and behaviour puts him in a wrong colour and picture.If people like him are so brazen in not sticking to their commitments what kind of message does his act convey in general masses and his followers in particular.This is the difference between as real sadhu and teacher and a pseudo sadhu and teacher.The real teacher leads by example and put a very correct picture of himself to his followers.he is not a teacher and there is no difference between the people who indulge in crime but brazen it out and he who with his WCF raped the flood plains of Yamuna, promised to pay the nominal fine imposed by NGT on the eve of the festival and got approval on condition that the fine will be paid after the festival but has since refused to stick to his commitment.He is trying to be a states man by writing to ISIS and they joked about his naivety by sending him a picture of beheaded man.There are some question which should be asked :A. How does he know ISIS.B. Why did he corrosponded with them.C. Who or whose behalf did he write this letter.D. Did GOI appointed him as incoluter with ISIS .E. What is his standing among Arabs and supporters of ISIS .F. Is he looking for a active political role with GOI.G. Should not NIA question him on his relationships inside ISIS high command?H. On relationship with person to whom the letter was addressed?.I . If he wrote directly to Bagdadi and Bagdadi replied to him then it really becomes a case for thorough investigation by intelligence agencies across the globe because there is no intelligence available on Bagdai, his movements, and his place of stay and his permanent postal address.I. He should voluntarily cooperate with intelligence agencies and share details of Bagdadi it may help in eliminating Bagdadi.
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